Chapter 17 - The West

THE AMERICAN YAWP: 17. The West

I. Introduction

  • Cultural and Geographical Dominance of Native Americans: Native Americans had long dominated the vast American West, interconnected through trade, travel, and warfare, particularly controlling lands west of the Mississippi River into the 19th century.

  • Integration of Traders: Spanish, French, British, and American traders engaged with Indigenous economies, yet no single imperial authority had established comprehensive control over the continent until post-Civil War developments.

  • Impact of the Civil War: The war decoupled Western issues from slavery and coincided with U.S. industrialization and expansion into the West. Settlers, military presence, and capital significantly impacted Native groups and land control.

  • Contrasting Perspectives on Expansion: Expansion was perceived as either a triumph or a tragedy, embodying diverse peoples and histories, ultimately marking a pivotal transformation in U.S. history.

II. Post-Civil War Westward Migration

  • Mass Migration Post-Civil War: After the Civil War, American settlers moved westward in record numbers, settling extensively in the continent's heart rather than merely in California or Oregon.

  • Gold and Silver Rushes: Notable strikes occurred: California (1848-49), Colorado (1858), Nevada (1859), Idaho (1860), Montana (1863), and Black Hills (1874). These attracted waves of prospectors, many of whom failed to find wealth.

  • Labor Dynamics: Mining operations also benefited from ancillary service industries where many women worked. Despite men dominating the mining workforce, women's contributions in households were crucial.

  • Economic Repercussions: The initial profits from mining were often overshadowed by the external investments that drove the boom; ex. Colorado’s gold extraction was estimated at $25.5 million but was less than outside investments.

  • Bison Slaughter and Shifting Economies: The near extinction of the American bison (from over 10 million to a few hundred) enabled the transition from bison to cattle ranching, facilitated by expanding railroads.

  • Migration of Mormons: From 1846 to 1868, approximately 70,000 Mormons migrated west, driven by religious persecution and a vision to build a utopian society. Mormons faced similar struggles as other settlers yet aimed to create agrarian communities.

  • Homestead Act of 1862: Allowed male citizens (or those intending to become citizens) to claim 160 acres of land. Requirements included improvements on the land within five years before obtaining a title deed. Women struggled under this act due to legal dependency on husbands.

  • Population Growth: By 1860, Kansas had around 10,000 farms, rising to 239,000 by 1880. Texas's population surged from 200,000 in 1850 to 1.6 million in 1880 and 3 million by 1900.

III. The Indian Wars and Federal Peace Policies

  • Dakota War of 1862: Tension erupted over broken treaties, leading to violent conflicts. The Dakota people's frustrations culminated in violence after starvation and provocations from traders and settlers.

  • Engagement and Retaliation: Following assaults on settlers, a conflict escalated. After a series of retaliatory attacks, the U.S. military suppressed Dakota resistance, leading to significant casualties and imprisonment of Dakota members.

  • Impact of Buffalo Soldiers: African American cavalry units, known as Buffalo Soldiers, played pivotal roles despite facing prejudice, confronting Native American groups and being part of many victories during the Indian Wars.

  • Indian Peace Commission of 1868: Established to reevaluate policies towards Native Americans amidst rising violence. This commission led to Christianization of policies through missions as a humane approach to managing reservations.

  • Sand Creek Massacre: On November 29, 1864, a massacre of Cheyenne led by John M. Chivington occurred, highlighting violent outcomes of settler incursions despite peace initiatives.

  • Continued Military Campaigns: Conflicts persisted as settlers pushed for new treaties and land claims, leading to numerous violent engagements and further repression of Native American sovereignty.

  • Red River War and Comanche Resistance: U.S. military campaigns aimed to confine the Comanche, leading to their eventual surrender and establishment of reservations as a means of control over Native populations.

  • Sioux Resistance: Military pressure among the Sioux continued, consuming resources and leading to conflicts such as the defeat of Custer at the Battle of Little Bighorn. This spurred further military expeditions to quash resistance.

IV. Beyond the Plains

  • Utes and Paiutes Displaced: Ute and Paiute groups suffered from U.S. expansion into their territories, which led to military engagements against other tribes, especially in the Southwest.

  • Concentration of Efforts Against the Navajo: The U.S. sought to remove Navajo peoples, including the forced Long Walk to Bosque Redondo, which inflicted significant suffering and led to eventual repatriation agreements in 1868.

  • Modoc and Nez Perce Resistance: Both groups faced severe military confrontations, leading to violent struggles as they resisted forced removal and fought for their traditional lands.

V. Western Economic Expansion: Railroads and Cattle

  • Railroads as Economic Drivers: Railroads facilitated phenomenal growth in the Western economy, primarily through agriculture and resource extraction. They became critical in connecting eastern markets with western resources.

  • Transcontinental Railroad: Completed in 1869, this monumental infrastructure linked coast-to-coast travel and trade, completely transforming the economic landscape and settlement patterns in the West.

  • Immigrant Labor in Railroads: Approximately 400,000 men were employed in the industry by 1880, often under hazardous conditions and significantly capitalizing on immigrant labor.

  • Cattle Drives: Initiated post-Civil War, these drives moved cattle from Texas to emerging markets like Chicago, which developed as a central hub for meat processing and distribution.

  • Economic Profile of Cowboys: While many sought wealth and ranch ownership, most cowboys lived on modest wages and endured tough working conditions during cattle drives, reflecting broader economic disparities.

VI. The Allotment Era and Resistance in the Native West

  • Dawes General Allotment Act of 1887: This act attempted to assimilate Native Americans by allotting individual parcels of land to families while undermining tribal sovereignty and communal land rights. It was purportedly protective but led to further dispossession of Native lands.

  • Religious and Messianic Responses: Indigenous communities increasingly connected various spiritual movements, like the Ghost Dance, as a response to cultural challenges, seeking hope and revitalization amid despairing conditions in reservations.

VII. Rodeos, Wild West Shows, and the Mythic American West

  • Cultural Mythmaking: The post-Civil War era saw a proliferation of myths surrounding the West, heavily shaped by literature, entertainment, and performances that romanticized cowboy culture and Indigenous experiences.

  • Emergence of Rodeos: Originating in the late 19th century, rodeos grew from informal contests into large-scale events, blending competitive displays with elements of folklore.

  • Buffalo Bill's Wild West Shows: Buffalo Bill Cody capitalized on American fascination with the West, staging grand spectacles that combined entertainment with visual representations of frontier life.

VIII. The West as History: the Turner Thesis

  • Frederick Jackson Turner’s Thesis (1893): Turner's influential concept argued that the frontier shaped American democracy and culture through the movement toward civilization, critiquing prior methods of historical analysis. His thesis garnered critiques for Anglo-Saxon biases and simplifications of complex interactions.

IX. Primary Sources

  1. Chief Joseph's Surrender Statement (1877)

  2. William T. Hornaday on Bison Extermination (1889)

X. Reference Material

  • The evolving history and narratives surrounding the American West are replete with complex cultures, conflicts, economic transformations, and mythologization. Understanding these elements is essential across historical studies.