Chapter 6 part 1: Development and Changes Across Our Lifetime

Chapter 6: Development and Changes Across Our Lifetime

Growing and Developing Across the Lifespan

  • Stages: Prenatal development, Infancy, Childhood, Adolescence, Emerging adulthood, Early adulthood, Middle adulthood, Older adulthood

Learning Objectives

  • Describe stages of prenatal development
  • Explain how teratogens can harm the embryo/fetus

Conception and Prenatal Development

  • Ovulation: Maturation and release of ovum from the ovary into the fallopian tube
  • Conception: Fertilization of the ovum by sperm
  • Zygote: Fertilized ovum that differentiates and attaches to the uterus
  • Embryo: From 2nd to 8th week of development
  • Fetus: From 9th week until birth, marked by dramatic growth

The Embryo

  • Prenatal Environment:
    • Amniotic Sac: Fluid-filled reservoir, cushions embryo/fetus, regulates temperature
    • Placenta: Facilitates nutrient exchange and filters harmful materials
    • Umbilical Cord: Connects embryo/fetus to placenta

The Environment Affects the Fetus

  • Teratogens: Harmful factors affecting fetal development
    • Examples: Infectious diseases, pollution, substances (e.g., drugs and alcohol)
  • Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Caused by maternal alcohol consumption; potential effects include:
    • Low birth weight
    • Stunted growth
    • Craniofacial anomalies
    • Neurobehavioral and cognitive problems

Epigenetics

  • Genome: Complete set of genes within an organism's cells
  • Interaction of nature and nurture plays a crucial role in human development
  • Epigenetics: Heritable changes in gene function not due to DNA sequence alteration

Key Takeaways (Prenatal Development)

  • Development transitions from a single cell (zygote) to an embryo, then a fetus
  • Connection between fetus and mother is facilitated via umbilical cord and placenta
  • Fetus is safeguarded by amniotic sac
  • Teratogens can adversely affect embryonic and fetal development
  • Environmental factors significantly influence healthy prenatal development
  • Experiences can affect gene expression (turning genes on or off)

Learning Objectives (Infancy and Childhood)

  • Describe newborn abilities and environmental engagement
  • List Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
  • Critique Piaget and discuss complementary theories
  • Summarize social development processes in early life

The Newborn Arrives with Innate Behaviors

  • Reflexes and their significance:
    • Rooting reflex: Infant turns head and opens mouth when cheek is stroked (ensures feeding)
    • Blink reflex: Protects eyes from stimuli
    • Withdrawal reflex: Keeps infant from painful stimuli
    • Tonic neck reflex: Aids hand-eye coordination
    • Grasp reflex: Supports exploratory learning
    • Moro reflex: Protects from falling
    • Stepping reflex: Encourages motor development

Newborn Preferences

  • Preference for:
    • Sweet tastes (e.g., breast milk)
    • Mother’s smell
    • Higher-pitched voices
  • Recognizes facial expressions and emotions
  • Requires 14-17 hours of sleep daily

Studying Infant Knowledge

  • Habituation: Decreased response to repeated stimuli; helps researchers gauge infant perception
  • Method: Present stimulus until habituated, then assess response to a new stimulus

Cognitive Development During Childhood

  • Assimilation: Integrating new experiences into existing schemas
    • Example: Recognizing different dog breeds
  • Accommodation: Modifying schemas with new information
    • Example: Distinguishing between dogs and cats

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

  1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth - 2 years)
    • Interaction through senses
    • Key concept: Object permanence
  2. Preoperational Stage (2 - 7 years)
    • Internal representation of the world
    • Key concepts: Theory of mind, rapid language development
  3. Concrete Operational Stage (5 - onset of puberty)
    • Logical thinking, mental manipulation of objects
    • Key concept: Conservation
  4. Formal Operational Stage (Onset of puberty - adulthood)
    • Abstract reasoning, understanding ethics

Cognitive Development Key Concepts

  • Object permanence: Knowing an object exists even when it’s not visible
  • Theory of mind: Understanding others' perspectives
  • Conservation: Recognizing quantity remains constant despite changes in form

Attachment Research

  • Harry and Margaret Harlow: Experiments with monkeys indicating importance of comfort (cloth mother) over food (wire mother)
  • Margaret Ainsworth: Explored attachment styles in the ‘strange situation’: avoidant, anxious, secure, disorganized
  • Important Contributions:
    • John Bowlby's work on attachment and relationship dynamics

Social Development During Childhood

  • Temperament: Early foundation of personality traits affecting interactions
    • Includes energy level, mood, emotional responsiveness, and willingness to explore

Key Takeaways (Infancy and Childhood)

  • Babies possess various skills and reflexes from birth
  • Habituation technique reflects an infant’s capacity to learn
  • Children utilize both assimilation and accommodation to form schemas
  • Piaget's theory proposes sequential cognitive development stages
    • Critiques and expansions of his theory exist
  • Secure attachment promotes exploration and relationships
  • Temperament influences child-caregiver and teacher interactions.