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RMIT University acknowledges the Woi wurrung and Boon wurrung language groups of the eastern Kulin Nation.
- Recognition of the unceded lands where the university operates.
- Respect is given to their Ancestors and Elders, past and present.
- Recognition of Traditional Custodians and their Ancestors across Australia.
Artwork by Hollie Johnson, a Gunaikurnai and Monero Ngarigo woman from Gippsland, who graduated from RMIT with a BA in Photography in 2016.

At the end of this lecture, students will be able to:

Explain the difference between sex and gender and their impact on health.
Outline how gender impacts the health of women, men, and gender diverse populations both nationally and globally.
Identify ways in which gender bias exists within research and healthcare.

Differences in Experiences:
- Women, girls, men, boys, and gender-diverse individuals have distinct experiences of health and illness which are influenced by variations in sex and gender.
- Understanding these differences is crucial to improving health outcomes, quality of life, and overall well-being.
Definitions:
- Sex:
- Refers to biological and physiological characteristics that categorize humans as male, female, or intersex.
- Gender:
- Refers to roles, behaviors, and activities that a society considers appropriate for men, women, and gender-diverse populations (Kirkman et al., 2024).

At risk for health issues such as:
- Unintended pregnancies
- Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
- Cervical cancer
- Malnutrition
- Lower vision and respiratory infections
- Elder abuse
Experience high levels of violence rooted in gender inequality.
Female Genital Mutilation: A significant health issue.
Child & Early Forced Marriage:
- 1 in 3 women worldwide have faced physical and/or sexual intimate partner violence or non-partner sexual violence.

Rigid notions of masculinity negatively affect health and well-being.
Example:
- Encouragement for boys and men to smoke, engage in risky sexual behaviors, misuse alcohol, and avoid seeking help or healthcare.
These gender norms also lead to violence perpetrated by and against boys and men, impacting their mental health (WHO, 2025).

More likely to be at risk of ill health than men at all life stages.
Tend to live longer on average than men.
Higher rates of chronic health conditions and mental health issues.
Specific sexual and reproductive health needs and concerns.
Dietary habits: more likely to consume fewer fruits and vegetables, and higher rates of overweight/obesity.
Increased risk of alcohol consumption at risky levels.

More of the total disease burden is due to premature deaths (54%).
Key health issues by age group:
- Suicide and self-inflicted injuries (15-44 age group)
- Coronary heart disease (45-64 age group)
- Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and dementia (65-84 age group).

More of the disease burden is due to living with ill health (58%).
Leading health issues include anxiety disorders (15-44) and higher rates of chronic conditions in older age groups.

Prevalence of Chronic Conditions:
- 49% of males and 56% of females had at least one of ten selected chronic conditions.
- 6.8% of males and 11% of females had three or more selected chronic conditions.
Life Expectancy:
- Males: 81.3 years; expected to spend 88% of life in full health.
- Females: 85.4 years; expected to spend 87% of life in full health.
Premature Deaths:
- Account for 40% of male deaths, 27% of female deaths (AIHW, 2024).

40% of ill health and premature deaths in males and 35% in females could be prevented through minimizing exposure to specific risk factors.
Proportions of Males and Females with Risk Factors:
- Physically active: 65% males, 59% females.
- Meeting vegetable guidelines: 4% males, 12% females.
- Exceeding 10 standard drinks per week: 13% males, 27% females.
- Daily smokers: 8% males, 6% females.
- Living with overweight or obesity: 75% males, 60% females.
- Experienced sexual violence since age 15: 22% females, 6% males (AIHW, 2024).

Delayed diagnosis of health conditions.
Polypharmacy (overprescribing of medications).
Symptoms often inadequately investigated.
Less likelihood of receiving appropriate treatments and health services (Kirkman et al., 2024).

Gender bias is incredibly complex with no single cause; rooted in historical inequalities.
Assumptions that women's health experiences mirror those of men.
Intersectionality: Gender bias intersects with ethnicity, socioeconomic status, disability, age, and sexual orientation, producing compounded inequalities with social and economic consequences (WHO, 2023).

Gender stereotypes impact biomedical analysis, interpretation, and treatment methodologies.
- Example: Female pain often underestimated, perceived as psychosomatic, while male pain is considered organic.
- Chronic pain syndromes in women often go unrecognized, leading to stigmatization.
Literature indicates gender biases in clinician-patient interactions lead to disparities in care.
- Women often receive less intensive pain care, and are more likely to be prescribed antidepressants compared to analgesics, influencing overall health outcomes.

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2022). Men and Women. https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports-data/population-groups/men-women/overview
Kirkman, M., et al. (2024). Literature review to inform strategies to address sex and gender bias in the Health system. Department of Health and Aged Care, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra. www.health.gov.au/resources/publications/literature-review-to-inform-strategies-to-address-sexand-gender-bias-in-the-health-system
Moretti, C., et al. (2023). Gender and sex bias in prevention and clinical treatment of women's chronic pain: hypotheses of a curriculum development. Frontiers in medicine, 10, 1189126. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2023.1189126
World Health Organisation. (2025). Gender and health. https://www.who.int/health-topics/gender#tab=tab_1