Literary Terms and Concepts for Poetry and Prose

Foundations of Poetry and Oral Tradition

Poetry finds its roots in the ancient tradition of orality, where literature was transmitted through spoken word rather than written text. In this context, the role of the bard or scop was central to nomadic and early settled societies. The bard, a term often associated with Gaelic and British cultures, and the scop, the Old English equivalent, served as the collective memory of their people, performing histories, genealogies, and myths. These oral poets relied on specific mnemonic devices and rhythmic patterns to preserve the integrity of their stories across generations.

The smallest unit of construction in poetry begins with the word. To create musicality and structure, poets employ various types of rhyme. Consonant rhyme, also referred to as perfect rhyme, involves the exact correspondence of the final sounds in two or more words. In contrast, assonant rhyme, often called imperfect or slant rhyme, involves the repetition of vowel sounds without the corresponding consonant sounds. These rhymes are organized into a rhyme scheme, a designated pattern of end rhymes denoted by letters (e.g., ABAB).

Poetic Structure: Line, Scansion, and Meter

The line is the fundamental unit of poetry, distinct from the sentence. To analyze a poem’s rhythmic structure, scholars use scansion, which is the process of marking the stresses (accented syllables) and unstressed syllables in a poem. The basic unit of rhythmic measurement is the foot. Several types of feet define the movement of a line: the iamb (one unstressed followed by one stressed syllable), the trochee (one stressed followed by one unstressed), the anapest (two unstressed followed by one stressed), the dactyl (one stressed followed by two unstressed), and the spondee (two stressed syllables). A dibrach is a foot consisting of two short or unstressed syllables.

The number of feet in a line determines its meter. Monometer consists of one foot per line, dimeter consists of two, trimeter of three, tetrameter of four, pentameter of five, and hexameter of six. Blank verse is a specific and popular form of English poetry written in unrhymed iambic pentameter. This form is often utilized for its proximity to the natural cadence of English speech while maintaining a formal structure.

Stanzaic Forms and Poetic Groupings

A stanza is a group of lines forming the basic recurring metrical unit in a poem, often functioning like a paragraph in prose. Stanzas are classified by the number of lines they contain: a couplet consists of two lines; a tercet contains three lines; a quatrain contains four lines; a quintain contains five lines; and a sextain contains six lines. Ottava rima is a specific Italian stanzaic form consisting of eight iambic lines, usually pentameter, following a rhyme scheme of ABABABCC.

Techniques within these structures include enjambment, which occurs when a sentence or clause runs over from one poetic line to the next without terminal punctuation. Syntax refers to the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences, which poets may manipulate to create emphasis or rhythm. Poetry is broadly categorized into closed form, which follows a set structure, and open form, which lacks a predetermined pattern.

Specific Poetic Forms and Types

Closed form poetry includes specific structures with strict rules. The haiku is a three-line Japanese form with a syllable structure of 5-7-5. The villanelle is a nineteen-line poem with two repeating rhymes and two refrains. The epigram is a pithy, often satirical or witty saying or short poem. The sonnet is a fourteen-line poem traditionally written in iambic pentameter. The ode is a formal, often long, lyric poem that is serious in subject and treatment, elevated in style, and elaborate in its stanzaic structure.

Poetry can also be categorized by its purpose and style. Narrative poetry tells a story, while an epic is a long narrative poem on a grand scale, usually involving heroic figures and significant events. A ballad is a narrative poem originally intended to be sung, often characterized by simple language and a refrain. Lyric poetry expresses the personal emotions or thoughts of a speaker. Dramatic poetry involves a narrative told through the speech of characters, often intended for performance.

The Sonnet and Aesthetic Devices

The sonnet is further divided into two primary traditions: the Italian (Petrarchan) sonnet and the English (Shakespearean) sonnet. The Italian sonnet is divided into an octave (eight lines) and a sestet (six lines), while the English sonnet consists of three quatrains and a final concluding couplet. A defining feature of the sonnet is the volta, or the "turn," which represents a shift in thought, argument, or emotion within the poem.

Poets employ images to appeal to the senses and symbols to represent abstract ideas through concrete objects. An extended metaphor is a comparison between two unlike things that continues throughout a series of sentences in a paragraph or lines in a poem. Free verse is an open form of poetry that does not use consistent meter or rhyme. In some traditions, poets use the vocative case to directly address a person or personified object. Additionally, AAVE (African American Vernacular English) is recognized as a distinct linguistic and cultural framework that influences poetic rhythm, syntax, and voice. The Metaphysical poets were a group of 17th-century writers known for their use of complex conceits and intellectualized imagery.

Literary Movements and the History of the Novel

Literature is defined by broad movements: Romanticism emphasized emotion and nature; the Symbolist movement focused on indirect suggestion through symbols; Realism sought to depict life accurately as it is; and Transcendentalism was a philosophy emphasizing the inherent goodness of people and nature. Confessional poets of the 20th century wrote about private, personal experiences, while Modernism broke away from traditional forms and explored themes of fragmentation.

The novel, or roman, is a long prose narrative. Smaller variations include the novella. Different styles of the novel include the picaresque, which depicts the adventures of a roguish hero; the Romance, which focuses on idealized characters and exotic settings; and Realism and Naturalism, which focus on everyday life and the influence of heredity or environment. The epistolary novel is told through documents, such as letters, while a frame tale involves a story within a story. A novel of manners examines the social customs of a particular class.

Psychological novels focus on the internal lives of characters. Specific subgenres include the Bildungsroman (a novel of formation or coming-of-age) and the Kunstlerroman (a novel following the development of an artist). The social novel addresses social problems, and documentary fiction uses historical facts to tell a story. Stream of consciousness is a narrative technique that mimics the flow of human thought. The nouveau roman was an avant-garde French movement that challenged traditional plot and character. Magical realism, popularized by the "Boom" writers of Latin America, incorporates fantastical elements into realistic settings.

Narrative Concepts and Sociopolitical Contexts

Narrative structures are often classified as comic, tragic, satiric, or romantic. Key narrative techniques include en media res, or starting the story in the middle of the action, and the careful management of chronology. Foreshadowing is used to provide hints about what is to come. Epistemology, the study of knowledge and belief, often informs the thematic depth of a narrative. Genre fiction includes romance, SF (science fiction), mystery, Westerns, and fanfic.

Specific contexts such as mid-1980s US politics and mid-1980s second wave feminism provide the background for certain literary works (likely The Handmaid's Tale). In this setting, Gilead, Massachusetts, serves as a dystopia. The society uses specific terminology including Unwoman and Unbaby for those who fail to meet societal standards, and the Colonies as a place of exile. Roles are defined by biblical precedents, such as the handmaids being justified through the stories of Jacob, Rachel, Leah, and Bilhah. The language of this world is full of portmanteaus and neologisms, such as Particicution (participation and execution), Prayvaganza (prayer and extravaganza), Econowives, and the Birthmobile. The term Children of Ham refers to racial divisions within this specific narrative framework. Furthermore, themes of autodidacticism (self-teaching) and the influence of historical figures like Erasmus Darwin and the Gothic tradition are often explored within this literary analysis.