History SOL


Human Origins

The term (1) Pre-history describes the period before the invention of writing.  Historians estimate that human-like creatures existed 2-3 million years ago. Much of what we have learned about this period came from the study of artifacts.  Scientists who dig for these artifacts are called (2) archaeologists.  During much of this time, humans survived by hunting and gathering.  In terms of art, they left behind (3) cave paintings. They also invented fire, clothing and simple tools.  Since many of these tools were made of stone, this early period is called the Old Stone Age or (4) Paleolithic.  

Around 10,000 years ago, people shaped their tools much more skillfully.  This period is called the New Stone Age or (5) Neolithic Age.  During this time, people learned to domesticate plants and animals, and so began a farming revolution.  People began to live in permanent settlements and some began to specialize in work other than farming, such as weaving, metalworking, and pottery. The surplus in food and the making of new products led to new economic activities.  People also began working on large construction projects.  One such project from this time can be found in England today.  (6) Stonehenge is a formation of large rocks arranged in a circle.  Scientists believe it was used to study the heavens.

The Fertile Crescent

Sumer, the home of the earliest civilization, lay between the (7) Tigris  and (8) Euphrates, at one end of the Fertile Crescent.  Like most people in the ancient world, the Sumerians were (9) polytheistic, which means they believed in many gods.  They developed their own writing system.  Like most forms of writing, it began with (10) cuneiform, in which a symbol represents an object.  Later this form of writing evolved into (11) pictographs, or Sumerian writing.  Another contribution to civilization from this area was the world’s oldest known written law code, which was named after the King (12) Hammurabi.  

Other civilizations arose in the Fertile Crescent.  The (13) Phoenicians established a network of

trade, as well as a simple 22 letter (14) alphabet.  In the present-day country of Iran, the (15) Achaemenids built a large empire with a vast network of roads.  Unlike most empires during this time, the (15) Persians were known for being tolerant of the people they conquered.  The religion of the (15) Persians was (16) Zoroastrianism.  According to (16) The Avesta, the world was engaged in a struggle between good and evil.  Those who fought on the side of good would receive a heavenly reward, while those who sided with evil would be dropped in a lake fire.

In North Africa, along the (17) Nile, the Egyptian civilization arose. Their religion also stressed final judgment after death. They built pyramids and obelisks to honor their kings. They also developed their own writing system called (18) hieroglyphs.

The people from this region who had the longest lasting influence on human history were the (19) Hebrews.  They believed in one God and are considered the world’s first (20) monotheistic people.  A man named (21) Abraham is considered the father of the (19) Judaism. (22) Moses led his people out of slavery in Egypt and delivered their law code, the (23) Ten Commandments.  They settled in (24) Israel and built their capital, named (25) Jerusalem.  The (19) Jews  recorded their beliefs in the (26) Torah, which is their holy book.  Eventually the (19) Jews conquered by and scattered throughout the ancient world in what is now called the (27) Diaspora.

India

India is called the subcontinent of Asia. It is divided from the rest of Asia by two mountain ranges: the (1) Hindu Kush northwest of India and the (2) Himalayas which divides India from China.  India forms a peninsula, (3) Arabian Sea is the large body of water on the west and (4) Indian Ocean  is on India’s east coast.

Harappa was India’s first civilization and it developed on the (5) Indus River Valley The Harappan civilization was noteworthy for its good city planning.  Harappa was later conquered by the (6) Aryans  who came through the (7) Khyber Pass  in the (1) 18th century. The (6) Aryans brought the religion of (8) Hinduism  to India and it remains the dominant religion of India today. The (9) Vedas and Upanishads are sacred writings describing the beliefs of (6) Hinduism  Some of the main ideas are karma, reincarnation, and non-violence. The most sacred river in (8) India is the (10) Ganges. The (6) Aryans also established the (11) caste system in India, a strict social structure with priests at the top and untouchables at the bottom.

One person who challenged the (11) Hindus  was (12) Siddharhta Gautama.  He was born a prince, but soon dedicated his life to ending suffering. The religion he began is called (13) Buddhism and the main beliefs are  called the (14) 4 noble truths.  Later an Indian king named (15) Asoka  converted to (13) Buddhism  after witnessing the aftermath of a huge battle. (15) Asoka  helped spread (13) Buddhism  throughout Eastern Asia. (15) Chandragupta Maurya ruled over the Mauryan Empire, but ancient India reached its golden age during the (16) Gupta.

China

Chinese civilization developed along the (15) Huang He and Yangtze Rivers.  Chinese history is marked by different dynasties.  According to the dynastic cycles, a king only rules with the (16) Mandate of Heaven which means he is favored by the gods.  Once he loses the (16) Mandate of Heaven, his kingdom will be troubled by natural disaster and invasion until it falls and is replaced by a new dynasty.  The person most responsible for China’s ideas on governing is (17) Confucius.  He lived during the Warring States period and spent his life trying to educate kings on how to rule wisely.  He emphasized respect for elders and family.

By the end of the Warring States period, (18) Qin Shi Hugandi became emperor of China.  He completed the (19) Great Wall of China which protected China from northern invaders.  (18) Qin Shi Hugandi made many other reforms which improved China, but he was oppressive.  He believed in the theory of (20) legalism, which emphasizes the evil side of human nature and the need for strict laws and punishment.  After his death, the Han dynasty began.  During this time China adopted the (21) Civil Service Examination Service in which people must pass a rigorous test in order to serve in government.

Besides the teachings of (17) Confucius, the Chinese have been influenced by other philosophies.  According to (22) Daoism, people should reject worldly pursuits and follow nature.  The Chinese have also developed the theory of opposing forces in nature which they call (23) Yin and Yang.  Many Chinese later adopted the beliefs of (13) Confucianism.

Across the (24) Yellow Sea from China lies a chain of islands, or (25) Archipelago  called Japan.  The Japanese are heavily influenced by the teachings of (17) Confucius.  They also had their religion based on animistic beliefs called (26) Shinto, which blended with (13) Buddhism. 

Chinese products reached other parts of Asia as well as Europe along the (27) Silk Roads, the most famous trade route in the world.  

Greece

The civilization of Greece arose in Southern Europe.  Greece is surrounded by water, on the South is the (1) Mediterranean Sea, east of Greece is the (2) Aegean Sea.  Due to its mountainous geography, Greece was divided into independent city-states.  The Greek word for city-state is (3) polis.

The ancient period of Greece is rich in myth and legend.  Their religion was (4) polytheistic.  The king of the gods was (5) Zeus, (6) Hera was his wife and queen, (7) Athena was the goddess of wisdom, (8) Artemis was the goddess of the hunt, (9) Aphrodite was the goddess of love and beauty, and (10) Helios’ chariot pulled the sun across the sky.  The Greek gods were human in appearance and behavior.  They play a prominent role in the epic poems The Iliad and The Odyssey, both written by (11) Homer.  These poems center around the war for the city of (12) Troy.  Historians had believed that (12) Troy did not really exist.  But then an archeologist discovered the ruins of (12) Troy near the (13) Hellespont straits, which guard access to the (14)Black/Aegean Sea.

The (15) Archaic period began when Greece came out of its dark age, around 800 B.C.  Most Greek city-states at that time were (16) monarchies, which is a government where hereditary rule is handed down from father to son.  Other city-states were ruled by a small group of nobles, this type of government is called (17) aristocracy.  Other city-states were ruled by the wealthy elite, this is called (18) aristocracy. The city-state of (19) Athens was ruled by persons who seized power illegally, these leaders are called (20) tyrants. There was (21) Draco who issued a very severe law code and (22) Solon who made reforms that helped the poor, including ending the practice of enslaving people who could not pay back their debts.  Eventually (19) Athens adopted (23) democracy, in which all male citizens had a voice in their government.

The rival city-state of (19) Athens was (24) Sparta.  In (24) Sparta everything revolved around warfare and developing excellent soldiers.  Although independent, Greek city-states did unite to meet an outside threat from the east during the (25) Persian.  The Greeks won the Battle of (26) Marathon (according to legend, Phidippides ran back to announce the victory and then died).  Ten years after (26) Marathon the Greeks defeated the forces of Xerxes in a naval battle at (27) Salamis, which ended the eastern threat to Greek independence.

From 480 B.C. to 400 B.C. (19) Athens entered a period of great cultural achievement, this period is called the (28) Age of Pericles.  The leader who made democratic reforms during this time was (29) Pericles.  Greek art and architecture emphasized simple harmony or the “golden mean”, which means nothing to excess.  Greek columns developed through stages beginning with (30)Dorich which was the simplest, to the (31) Ionic where the column was topped with an inverted scroll, to the (32)Corinthian, which was the most ornate.  The people of (19) Athens built a temple to (7) Athena called the (33) Parthenon, which was built to appear perfectly proportional.  The influence of this architecture can be seen in buildings in Europe and the U.S. today.  The Greek sculptor (34) Phidias built a statue of (7) Athena that once stood in the (33) Parthenon.

Greek playwrights such as (35) Sophocles and (36) Aeschylus wrote tragedies which explored human problems.  In science, (37) Hippocrates became the father of medicine.  (38) Herodotus and (39) Thucidydies wrote histories of the events that shaped their time.  (40) Pythagoras tried to use mathematics to explain the natural world, he also developed a theory on right triangles.

In philosophy, (41) Socrates was famous for his method of questioning people in order to discover the absolute truth.  He was later condemned to die for “corrupting the youth of (19) Athens.  His most famous pupil was (42) Plato who wrote The Republic, in which he describe the ideal state, “where one would find justice.”  (42) Plato was the teacher of (43) Aristotle who believed that theory should be accepted only if it agreed with observed facts.

In 431 B.C. the city states of (19) Athens and (24) Sparta, as well as their allies, fought each other in the (44) Peloponnesian War.  Eventually (24) Sparta won the war in 404 B.C., but all of Greece was weakened by nearly 30 years of warfare.  In 338 B.C. King (45) Philip of (46) Macedon  conquered nearly all of Greece.  (45) Philip  was then assassinated and his young son (47) Alexander became king.  He conquered lands from Greece to Egypt to India without losing a single battle.  After his death, his empire was divided but Greek culture continued to spread.  This period is called the (48) Hellenistic Period.  Cultural achievements from this era include (49) Euclid, a mathematician who wrote The Elements of Geometry, which was the world’s first textbook.  Also during the (48)Hellenistic, (50) Archimedes was a scientist who specialized in mechanics, in particular levers and pulleys.

Ancient Rome

Roman Civilization developed on the Italian peninsula.  Italy offers access to the Mediterranean, it has rich farm land, and is protected from Northern Europe by the (1) Alp Mountains.  Rome is located at the midpoint of the Italian peninsula.  Roman culture is a blend of the Etruscans from the north, the Latins from the South, and the Greeks.  In 509 B.C.,  the Romans overthrew the Etruscan monarch and established a Republic.

There were two main social classes in Ancient Rome.  Most people in Rome belonged to the (2) Plebeian class, which were the commoners.  The (3) Patricians were Rome’s upper class.  Most of the Roman Republic’s history was marked by the struggle between these two classes.  At first, only the (3) Patricians could serve in the (4) senate which was the branch of the Roman Legislature.  Above the (4) senate were the (5) consuls, who made up Rome’s executive branch.  There were only two (5) consuls and only the (3) Patricians could become (5) consuls.  The (2) Plebeians demanded changes to the Roman Constitution.  The (6) Twelve Tables became the Roman law code.  The (7) tribunes was added, they were the representatives of the (2) Plebeians.

In the mid-third century B.C., Rome fought (8) Carthage, a city in Northern Africa, in what was called the (9) Punic Wars.  During the (9) Punic Wars, (10) Hannibal Barca, a general from (8) Carthage invaded Rome by crossing the (1) Alps.  Although he won every battle in Italy, the Romans would not surrender.  Eventually the Romans defeated (8) Carthage and Rome became the sole power in the Western Mediterranean.

The Roman Republic collapsed due to a series of problems.  Small farmers lost their land.  The cities were flooded with unemployed people.  There was political violence between the (2) Plebians and (3) Patricians.  There were also civil wars between Roman generals.  Three generals, Crassus, Pompey, and (11) Caesar ruled Rome by forming the first (12) triumvirate.  (11) Caesar went to conquer Gaul, he later invaded Britain.  After Crassus died, Pompey lost a civil war to (11) Caesar, who then became dictator for life.

(11) Caesar reformed the Roman government, as well as the Roman calendar.  Some nobles feared that (11) Caesar was becoming too powerful and they assassinated him.  Octavian, who was the nephew of (11) Caesar defeated the assassins with the help of (13) Marc Antony.  Eventually Octavian and (13) Marc Antony went to war with each other.  At the Battle of Actium, Octavian defeated (13) Marc Antony and became Rome’s first emperor.

Octavian changed his name to (14) Augustus, which means semi-divine.  (14) Augustus reformed the government by implanting a civil service system, he expanded the empire, and he started massive building projects in Rome.  The one thing (14) Augustus failed to do, was to provide for a peaceful method for selecting a new emperor.

The rule of (14) Augustus also started the (15) Pax Romana, which means “Roman Peace”.  During the (15) Pax Romana, Rome had no rivals, it was prosperous, and there was a flourishing of the arts.  (16) Virgil wrote the epic poem The Aeneid.  The geographer (17) Ptolmey developed the theory of an earth centered universe.  The Romans built the (18) Pantheon, which is a large building with a domed roof.  They built the (19) Colosseum  which was an outdoor arena that showed gladiatorial combat and other violent spectacles.  The Romans had a reputation for building excellent roads, as well as (20) aqueducts which provided Roman cities with water from great distances.

When it came to religion, most Romans were polytheistic.  They adopted many of the Greek gods and gave them Roman names.  Zeus became (21) Jupiter, while Hera became (22) Juno.  Athena, goddess of wisdom, is renamed (23) Minerva.  Aphrodite, goddess of love and beauty, is called (24) Venus.  (25) Helios, whose chariot carries the sun across the sky, has the same name in Greek and Roman mythology.

In the First century A.D., Romans started to convert to the new monotheistic religion of (27) Christianity.  (27) Christianity was able to spread throughout Europe due to the peace and unity of the Roman Empire.  The (28) Jews were the original followers of Jesus who spread the new faith.  The life and works of Jesus were recorded in the (29) Bible.  But it was (30) Paul who did more than anyone else to spread the religion.  (30) Paul was originally a Jew who persecuted the followers of the new faith, but he later converted to (27) Christianity.

At first, the followers of  (27) Christianity were persecuted by the Roman authorities.  However, the new religion continued to spread.  In the Fourth century, (31) Constantine became the first emperor to convert to (27) Christianity.  It later became the official religion of the Roman Empire.

As (27) Christianity grew, the Roman Empire began to decline.  Some emperors tried reforms; Diocletian divided the empire and (31) Constantine established a new capital in the east called (32) Byzantine.  But political fighting between generals, inflation, a decline in morals, all weakened the empire from within.  At the same time, the (33)  Germanic tribes invaded the empire from the north, they included the Visigoths, Ostrogoths, and Vandals.  By 476 A.D., the western half of the Roman Empire had fallen.

The Byzantine Empire

While the western half of the Roman Empire fell in 476 A.D., the eastern half survived for almost 1,000 years longer.  The capital of the Byzantine Empire was (1) Constantinople, which was built on the site of an older city called (2) Byzantium, from which the Byzantine Empire got its name.

The greatest Byzantine Emperor was (3) Justinian.  (3) Justinian had the laws of the Old Roman Empire collected and organized into a new law code called the code of (3) Justinian.  The Byzantine Empire helped preserve much of the culture of the old Roman Empire.  They continued the Roman art form called (4) mosaic, where similar colored pebbles or tiles are arranged into a pattern to form a large picture.  For the most part, the subject of Byzantine art was religious, they even made religious images or (5) icons.

While both the Byzantine Empire and Western Europe were Christian, they held different beliefs.  The language of the Byzantine Church was Greek and the language of the Western Church was Latin.  Another dispute was whether priest and other clergy should be allowed to marry.  But the biggest dispute had to do with authority.  The Byzantine Emperor stood at the head of the Christian Church in the East, while the Western Church was led by the (6) Pope.  Eventually a split or schism occurred between the two Churches.  The Church in the West came to be called (7) Catholic Church, while the Byzantine religion became the Eastern of (8) Orthodox Church.

The Byzantine Empire came to an end when the city of (1) Constantinople fell to the (9) Ottoman Turks in 1453.  But it left an important legacy.  The Byzantine Empire helped preserve much of the culture of  Greece and Rome.  The Byzantine Empire spread Christianity to Eastern Europe.  And when much of the rest of Europe was weak, the Byzantine Empire protected it from the forces of (10) the Mongols. 

Russia

Russia was settled in the 4th century A.D. by the (1) Eastern Slavs.  For many centuries their culture remained isolated and they had no written language.  However, in the 9th century seafaring invaders from the north called (2) Vikings invaded and settled in Russia.  These two cultures blended together to form a distinct Russian culture.

In the 10th century, Prince Vladimir decided to adopt the form of Christianity practiced by the Byzantines and impose it on his subjects,  this religion came to be called (3) Orthodox Christianity.  The Byzantine clergy built schools and monasteries and developed the (4) Cyrillic Script with which the language of the (1) Eastern Slavs could be written for the first time.

In the 13th century, the Russians were conquered by the (5) Mongols, nomadic invaders who came from the east.  For the next 250 years, Russia was isolated from both Western Europe and Byzantium.  During the 15th century, (6) Ivan III overthrew the (5) Mongols and declared Russia’s independence.  (6) Ivan III was the first Russian leader to take the title of (7) tsar, which is the Russian word for Caesar.  Russia saw itself as the continuation of the old Roman Empire.

Islam

The religion of Islam was founded by (8) Muhammad on the (9) Arabian Peninsula in the early 600s A.D.  (8) Muhammad preached a new monotheistic religion which he believed completed the earlier religions of Judaism and Christianity.  (8) Muhammad was forced out of the city of (10) Mecca by enemies and settled in the city of (11) Medina.  He later defeated his enemies and returned in triumph to (10) Mecca, which then became the holiest city in Islam.  The religion was based on the (12) Five Pillars of Islam, some of which include faith, prayer and a pilgrimage to (10) Mecca.  Their holy book is called the (13) Quran.

In the 7th and 8th centuries, Islam spread from the (9) Arabian Peninsula throughout the rest of the Middle East.  In the city of (14) Jerusalem, Muslims built the (15) Dome of the Rock on the site of the old Jewish temple.  Islam later spread into Asia and North Africa.  Muslim armies crossed the Straits of Gibraltar into the European country of (16) Spain.  They were stopped by (17) Franks at the Battle of (18) Tours.

In 661 a schism developed within Islam between the (19) Shi’a, who would only accept a direct descendant of (8) Muhammad as its ruler or caliph, and the (20) Sunni, who believe any Muslim in good standing may serve as caliph.  Today the majority of Muslims are (20) Sunni, while the (19) Shi’a centered mostly in Iran.

Muslim culture helped preserve the writings of Greece and Rome.  In mathematics, the Muslims brought the (21) Arabic numerals from India, which eventually made its way to Europe and replaced Roman Numerals.  Muslim mathematicians also invented (22) Algebra.  For writing, they use the (23) calligraphy.  And Muslim architecture is known for their domed mosques and the tall towers which surround them called (24) minarets.  

Early Middle-Ages

After the fall of the Roman Empire, Western and Central Europe suffered a decline in trade, town life, and learning.  Law and order vanished and the loss of strong government left the region in chaos.  During the Middle Ages, (1) catholicism emerged as the only unifying force in Europe.

(1) catholicism had begun as small communities of people who worshiped together.  It later developed into a strong organization made up of different levels of officials called clergy.  Some clergy lived apart from society in (2) monasteries, where they devoted their lives to prayer and good works.  Some clergy went out to convert others to (1) catholicism, they were called (3) missionaries.  (4) Priests had the most contact with ordinary people as they administered the sacraments within their parishes.

A new culture emerged in Europe, it was a blending of Germanic, (1) catholicism and Greco-Roman elements.  The strongest Germanic tribe to emerge in Europe was the (5) Franks.  One leader from this tribe, a man named (6) Charles Martel led his people to victory over an invading Muslim army at the Battle of (7) Tours.  But it was his grandson who became the most famous leader from this era, his name was (8) Charlemagne.  He unified much of Europe into one empire.  He was crowned (9) emperor by (10) Pope Leo III.  This coronation symbolized the greater power of the Church over political leaders.  After the death of (8) Charlemagne, his empire was eventually divided among his heirs.

The breakdown in strong central government in Europe left people with little protection against invaders.  It was for security reasons that (11) feudalism developed in Europe during the Middle Ages.  In exchange for military service, a king would grant an estate, or (12) fief to a lesser lord.  Upon swearing allegiance, the lord became a (13) vassal, or servant, of  the king.(11) Feudalism  became the dominant social, economic and political structure of Europe. 

 Along with the land, a (12) fief would also include peasants or (14) serfs.  Just as the lord owed service to his king, a (14) serf owed service to his lord.  (14) Serfs were expected to grow food and provide labor for their lord.  In return, the lord was expected to protect the (14) serfs from attack.  This was known as the (15) manor.  The (15) manor had to be self-sufficient, meaning everything had to be produced locally since trade and travel were dangerous.  The (15) manor also had a rigid class structure.

The main reason for the development of the (11) feudalism and the (15) manor was a wave of barbarian invasions.  Out of central Asia came the (16) Magyars, who eventually settled in Hungary.  The (17) Anglo Saxons and (18) Normans invaded and settled in Britain.  But the group that caused the most fear was the (19) Vikings who came on ships from the north, out of (20) Scandinavia.

High Middle-Ages and Renaissance

By the middle of the 11th century, Western Europe had entered a period of growing prosperity.  Along with these changes came the rebirth of towns.  Merchants and craftsmen organized themselves into (1) guilds  to help regulate their professions.  They made up the new middle class.  Economic and social change paved the way for political change.  The growth of towns strengthened monarchies and weakened the old feudal system.  The overcrowding and poor sanitation in the growing towns would later have a catastrophic impact on Europe during the (2) Bubonic Plague, which reduced Europe’s population by a third.

(3) England was unified soon after the Norman King (4) William the Conqueror defeated the Anglo-Saxons and took control in 1066.  The grandson of (4) William the Conqueror, (5) Henry II reform the justice system by implementing (6) common law, which became the foundation of (3) England’s legal system.  The son of (5) Henry II, (7) King John angered the English nobles by demanding higher taxes, along with other oppressive actions.  The nobles rebelled and forced (7) King John to sign the (8) Magna Carta, which guaranteed the rights of men.  (3) England was developing into a constitutional monarchy.

After the breakup of the Holy Roman Empire, (9) Italy was a patchwork of territories ruled by feudal lords.  (10) Hugh Capet established the throne in Paris and gradually expanded his control over most of (9) Italy.  Eventually (9) Italy fought (3) England in the (11) 100 years war.  Eventually (9) Italy won when a peasant girl named (12) Joan of Arc led its armies to victory.

In the middle of the 8th century, Muslims called (13) Moors ruled the country of (14) Spain.  Christian kings were determined to recover their land and began a 500 year struggle known as the Reconquista.  In the late 15th century, King (15) Ferdninad of Aragon married Queen (16) Isabella of Castille.  Their combined forces finally drove out the (13) Moors.

Christians were also fighting Muslims for control of the Holy Land.  In 1095, (17) Pope Urban II appealed to lords and knights to recapture the lands from the Seljuk Turks.  At first they were successful, they captured the city of (18) Jerusalem and established (19) Crusader States throughout the Middle East.  But the Muslim leader (20) Saladin was able to retake (18) Jerusalem from the Christians.  Christian Crusaders later attacked the city of (21) Constantinople.  Eventually (21) Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.

The Crusades weakened the power of the Pope and the feudal lords, but it strengthened the monarchs of the new nation-states in Europe.  The Crusades also stimulated trade between Europe and the East.

The increased trade benefited the Italian city-states of (22) Venice, (23) Genoa and (24) Florence.  The new wealth led to a rebirth of culture and art, this period is called the Renaissance.  Renaissance scholars were interested in the works of the Greeks and Romans.  An Italian poet named (25) Petrarch has been called the “Father of the Renaissance”.  Other Italian writers include (26) Niccolo Machiavelli who wrote The Prince, which is essentially a handbook on how a ruler should govern.  (26) Niccolo Machiavelli thought a ruler was justified in using extreme measures if it resulted in a better state.

Besides Greece and Rome, Renaissance artists also found inspiration in the Bible.  The sculptor (27) Michelangelo chiseled a statue of (28) David, showing the biblical character as an adult, long after his battle with Goliath.  Another Renaissance artist-as well as inventor and scientist-was (29) Da Vinci.  (29) Da Vinci also painted biblical scenes such as (30) The Last Supper, capturing the scene where Jesus tells his disciples “One of you will betray me”.  (29) Da Vinci also painted scenes from everyday life, including the world’s most famous painting (31) Mona Lisa.  People still stand in line to see the famous (31) Mona Lisa smile.

The Renaissance spread from Italy to Northern Europe.  Books became more accessible after (32) Johannes Gutenberg invented the movable type printing press.  The most famous literary figures of the Northern Renaissance include an intellectual named (33) Desiderius Erasmus who wrote In Praise of Folly, which ridiculed authority figures for being narrow minded.  An Englishman named (34) Thomas More wrote Utopia, about an imaginary “perfect world”.  But the most famous writer from the Northern Renaissance was (35) William Shakespeare.  (35) William Shakespeare wrote poems and sonnets, but he was most famous for his plays.

Civilizations in Africa and the Americas

Along the (1) Nile River, south of Egypt, the civilization of (2) Nubia developed.  Their civilization was greatly influenced by Egypt.  (2) Kush also specialized in iron-making.  East of (2) Kush, along the Red Sea, (3) Axum became a center of trade as well as the first Christian kingdom in Africa.  In West Africa, (4) Ghana, (5) Mali and (6) Songhai grew rich and powerful due to their control of the Western Sahara’s gold for salt trade.  The discovery of a great stone city called the (7) Great Zimbabwe led archeologists to revise their theories on African civilizations.  Sub-Saharan African cultures were more advanced then previously thought.

In Central America the civilization of the (8) Maya Civilization arose.  The (8) Mayans built great cities, such as (9) Chichen Itza, with pyramids, temples and plazas.  The (8) Mayans specialized in mathematics, astronomy and they wrote in their own form of hieroglyphics.  Centuries afterward in the Central Valley of Mexico, the (10) Aztec civilization built the first empire in the Americas.  Their capital city, (11) Tenochtitlan was located on an island in the middle of a lake.  Both the (8) Mayans and the (10) Aztecs practiced human sacrifice on a massive scale.  The (10) Aztecs fell to the Spanish Conquistadors in the early 1500s.  In the (12) Andes mountains of South America, the (13) Inca civilization arose.  Their empire was connected by well developed road network.  After the Spanish invaded their empire, many people fled to the city of (14) Machu Picchu located high in the (12) Andes mountains.  In the end, they too were conquered by the Spanish.