Preface – Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal communication refers to messages sent and received between two people. It represents the primary mechanism through which humans connect with one another across varied contexts, including intimate partnerships, workplace interactions, encounters with physicians or therapists, and brief exchanges with strangers.
Interpersonal communication strategies function as tools that can either enhance or harm human lives. Because verbal and nonverbal messages carry significant impact, ethical communication requires deliberate consideration of how messages are crafted and how individuals react to communication from others.
Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientations Theory
In 1960, William Schutz introduced the Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientations Theory, which identifies three core needs that motivate human interpersonal communication: control, inclusion, and affection.
Control
Control refers to an individual's ability to influence another person's behavior or ideas because it is perceived as the appropriate or right thing to do. It spans everyday persuasion attempts to organizational leadership skills in executive settings.
Control must be clearly distinguished from manipulation:
Control is neutral in itself and involves legitimate influence toward perceived correct outcomes.
Manipulation is influencing another person's behavior or ideas to one's own advantage, often using dishonest, unscrupulous, and insidious means.
Inclusion
Inclusion is the innate human desire to belong to social communities and groups. This need manifests across different stages of life:
Initial inclusion within the family unit at birth.
Participation in academic social circles, sports teams, fraternities, or sororities during youth.
Membership in professional associations and workplace organizations during adulthood.
Affection
Originating from the Latin term affectio (referring to emotions or feelings), affection is defined by Kory Floyd and Mark T. Morman (1998) as an emotional state of fondness and positive regard toward a specific target. Humans maintain an innate need both to experience positive affection from others (such as parents, peers, siblings, children, and colleagues) and to express affection toward others.
Statistical Concepts in Social Science Research
Social scientific research in interpersonal communication relies heavily on statistical analysis to evaluate behavioral patterns. Understanding research findings requires familiarity with two primary analytical frameworks: relationships and differences.
A variable in social science represents any attribute or characteristic that varies from person to person, such as height, weight, public speaking anxiety, or best friend relationship satisfaction.
Types of Statistical Relationships
Statistical relationships examine paired scores on two distinct variables obtained from single individuals. Research by Melissa Wanzer and Melanie Booth-Butterfield (1996) on "humor orientation" (HO)—defined as the use of jokes and joking during social interactions—illustrates the three primary types of statistical relationships measured via self-reported and other-reported HO scales.
Positive Relationship
A positive relationship occurs when an increase in scores on one variable corresponds to an increase in scores on another variable, and a decrease in one corresponds to a decrease in the other.
Wanzer and Booth-Butterfield identified a positive relationship between an individual's perceived humor orientation (other-reported HO) and their social attractiveness or popularity. Higher HO scores correlated with higher perceived popularity, whereas lower HO scores correlated with lower perceived popularity.
Negative Relationship
A negative relationship occurs when an increase in scores on one variable corresponds to a decrease in scores on a second variable.
Higher self-reported HO scores correlated with lower reported levels of loneliness. Conversely, lower HO scores correlated with higher levels of reported loneliness.
No Relationship
A state of no relationship indicates that changes in scores on one measure produce no systematic change in scores on the second measure.
Wanzer and Booth-Butterfield found no relationship between an individual's self-reported HO rating and another person's perception of their social attractiveness.
Correlation vs. Causation
Statistical tests measuring relationships yield correlations. A fundamental limitation of correlation is that it cannot establish causation (i.e., proving that variable directly caused variable ). A correlation strictly establishes the presence or absence of an association between variables.
Analyzing Statistical Differences
Social scientists categorize group comparisons into differences of kind and differences of degree.
Differences of Kind
Differences of kind occur when distinct categories of individuals exhibit entirely distinct, prescribed behavioral sets. For example, during an athletic event, cheerleaders exhibit behaviors such as using megaphones, dancing, and shouting cheers, whereas football players exhibit distinct physical behaviors such as tackling, running, and throwing a ball.
Differences of Degree
Differences of degree involve comparing the numerical scores of two or more distinct groups on a single outcome variable.
In a study by Max Roser, Cameron Appel, and Hannah Ritchie (2019) evaluating historical human height data from 1896 to 1996, consistent differences of degree were demonstrated between biological sexes:
Average male height in 1996:
Average female height in 1996:
Differences of degree focus on group averages rather than individual outliers (such as exceptionally tall females or short males).
Course and Curriculum Resources
Open Educational Resource (OER) materials created by Jason S. Wrench, Narissra M. Punyanunt-Carter, and Katherine S. Thweatt provide comprehensive instructional materials under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Available open-access companion tools include:
A student workbook containing complete text outlines, learning activities, unique adult coloring pages, and a -week course planner available via Milne Open Textbooks.
An instructor manual featuring note outlines, activities, and a comprehensive test bank.
A complete set of lecture PowerPoint presentations.
— William Schutz, Kory Floyd, Mark T. Morman, Melissa Wanzer, Melanie Booth-Butterfield, Max Roser, Cameron Appel, Hannah Ritchie, Jason S. Wrench, Narissra M. Punyanunt-Carter, Katherine S. Thweatt