AP Euro Semester 2 Notes

Period 3: The Long Nineteenth Century, ca. 1815 - ca. 1914

prelude

industrial revolution and global transformation

• industrial revolution began in britain ~1780, spread to europe and the united states, reshaped economy, society, and empire

• britain benefited from coal, iron, rivers, overseas trade, high wages, and supportive financial and naval infrastructure

• continental europe industrialized later with government-supported infrastructure, tariffs, and banks; germany led the second industrial revolution

social and class changes

• industrialization created a larger, wealthier middle class and a growing working class

• class-consciousness grew, strengthened by trade unions, strikes, and social associations

• rural populations migrated to cities; living conditions were poor but gradually improved with sanitation and medical advances

gender and family

• working-class women initially worked in factories and at home, leading to new gendered labor divisions

• middle-class women encouraged to leave labor force under “cult of domesticity” focusing on home and family

• companionate marriage ideals spread, consumer goods and leisure activities increasingly defined family life

political ideologies and reform

• conservatives defended monarchy, aristocracy, and church; liberals, radicals, socialists, and Marxists pushed reforms

• labor unions and political movements improved wages, working conditions, and social welfare

• revolutions (e.g., 1848) often failed, but nationalist and reformist pressures continued

nationalism and empire

• nationalism reshaped europe, led to unification of italy and germany, ethnic tensions, and anti-semitism

• modernization in russia and ottoman empire, nationalism in balkans escalated toward world war 1914

• industrialization and nationalism combined to drive imperial expansion, mass migration, and global influence

science, philosophy, and culture

• second industrial revolution advanced chemistry, physics, biology; challenged traditional beliefs

• darwin, freud, einstein, positivism questioned human reason and objective reality

• romanticism, realism, and modernism reshaped arts, emphasizing nature, emotion, social realities, and abstraction

imperialism and global impact

• europeans expanded empires using military, technology, medicine, and ideology of racial/cultural superiority

• global mass migration and flow of products and ideas increased

• non-western peoples resisted imperialism, leading to anti-imperialist nationalist movements by 1914

Chapter 10: The Revolution in Energy and Industry, ca. 1780-1850

Lesson 10.1: Why and how did the Industrial Revolution emerge in Britain?

Great Britain first to industrialize; pioneered social relations, urban living, technology, economic development

Why Britain?

unique possibilities and constraints

• abundant coal deposits, high wages, peaceful centralized govt, good finance systems, innovative culture, skilled craftsmen, strong global power

• sudden circumstance rather than planned strategy

scientific revolution and enlightenment embraced research and experimenting to understand world around them

• extended across many social institutions, public sharing of knowledge

rural industry produced surplus wool cloth

• lots of expanding export commercial profits

• mercantilist colonial empire in Latin America + slave trade provided raw material for manufactured goods

• strong manufacturing demand = higher wages than other nations

high agricultural productivity, many new methods of farming

• many crops, low prices, landless poor now worked for larger agricultural laborers and cottage industry

• shift from agricultural to growing manufacturing sector (1/3 employed)

English families can spend more on manufactured goods

• money 4 school → higher literacy

• labor towards high wages → increased commercialization

good natural resources and good infrastructure

• cheaper to ship goods → 1770s emerging canal building → easy movement of large deposits of iron and coal

• lots of coal + high wages → manufacturers had strong incentives to develop technology to draw coal to increase productivity

British state policies influenced a lot

• aggressive taxes for money towards navy to protect imperial commerce and stop uprisings

• Navigations Acts n more tariffs

industrial revolution: A term first coined in 1799 to describe the burst of major inventions and economic expansion that began in Britain in the late eighteenth century

Technological Innovations and Early Factories

machine powered factories in british cotton textiles marked a turning point in the industrial revolution

• pressure for more goods and lower labor costs

• earlier factories without machine power

• labor organized around productive machines

the putting out system structured textile production through home based labor but had clear limits

• merchants supplying raw materials

• spinner weaver imbalance; 4-5 spinners for 1 weaver

• inefficiency under growing demand

global demand and competition pushed britain to innovate in cotton production

• cotton easier to mechanize

• indian dominance in cotton textiles

• need to cut labor costs → invent new technology

new spinning inventions rapidly expanded cotton production and productivity

• spinning jenny (Hargreaves) and water frame (Arkwright)

• major growth in output

• cotton gin (Eli Whitney) increasing raw supply

spinning jenny: A simple, inexpensive, hand-powered spinning machine created by James Hargreaves in 1765.

• hand powered multiple spindles

• women operating machines

• female spinners surpassing male weavers

water frame: A spinning machine created by Richard Arkwright that had a capacity of several hundred spindles and used waterpower; it therefore required a larger and more specialized mill — a factory

• roller based stretching system

• did not replace cottage industry because it could only spin coarse strong thread, then handspinning on cottage jennies

• Samuel Crompton in 1780 made a hybrid Mule - spun lots of fine and strong thread

• concentrated large scale power factories

british textile innovations strengthened global competitiveness but spread slowly outside britain

• success in fine and coarse thread

• high machine costs at first

• adoption delayed in low wage regions

factory and cottage changes temporarily raised weaver incomes and reshaped labor choices

• steady access to yarn

• weavers earnings rising until 1790s

• push to invent power loom to save labor costs (Cartwright)

power looms eventually completed the mechanization of the cotton textile industry

• early inefficiency of machines

• dominance by 1820s

• major share of industrial output

The Steam Engine Breakthrough

europe remained energy poor by relying on wood and human and animal labor

• limited power sources

• manual and animal work dominant

• constraint on economic growth

wood shortages in britain pushed a transition from charcoal to coal

• iron industry fuel demands

• forest depletion causing stagnation

• reliance on russian iron imports

• coal use expanded from heating to powering industry and machinery

  • early domestic and industrial heating

  • widespread urban adoption

  • shift to mechanical energy

steam engine: A breakthrough invention by Thomas Savery in 1698 and Thomas Newcomen in 1705 that burned coal to produce steam, which was then used to operate a pump; the early models were superseded by James Watt’s more efficient steam engine, patented in 1769

james watt improved the steam engine by increasing its efficiency through a separate condenser

• work at university of glasgow

• study of newcomen engine

• patent in 1769

watt turned invention into commercial success through partnerships and skilled labor

• alliance with matthew boulton

• access to capital and mechanics

• continual improvements over decades

steam power became the most important technological advance of the industrial revolution

• replacement of waterpower

• expansion across industries

• flexible mechanical energy

steam power and coke transformed british iron production

• coke replacing charcoal

• steam driven blast furnaces

• rising pig iron output

corts innovations made iron cheap abundant and central to the british economy

• puddling furnace and rolling mills

• massive production growth

• iron used across industries

Steam-Powered Transportation

steam power transformed transportation through the development of railways

• coal industry use of rails

• reduced friction and heavier loads

• experiments with steam locomotives

Rocket: The name given to George Stephenson’s effective locomotive that was first tested in 1829 on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway at 35 miles per hour

• steam locomotives launched modern railroads and global transportation networks

• trevithick built first locomotive

• stephenson’s rocket on liverpool manchester line

• rapid expansion in britain and abroad

railroads expanded markets, encouraged larger factories, and created urban labor demand

• lower shipping costs and wider markets

• bigger factories with advanced machinery

• pressure on cottage workers and artisans

steam power also transformed water travel with steamships

• first steamships in france 1770s

• clermont on hudson river 1807

• speed reliability efficiency on rivers

Industry and Population
Crystal Palace: The location of the Great Exhibition in 1851 in London; an architectural masterpiece made entirely of glass and iron

britain dominated global industry and saw massive growth in production and population

• two thirds coal, half iron and cotton

• gnp quadrupled 1780–1851

• population grew 9m to 21m

population growth fueled industrial development but raised concerns about limits

• more mobile labor force

• population supported by agricultural and industrial advances

• malthus warned of overpopulation and famine

iron law of wages: Theory proposed by English economist David Ricardo suggesting that the pressure of population growth prevents wages from rising above the subsistence level

early predictions of population limits were overturned by industrial productivity

• malthus and ricardo proved wrong by late 19th century

• early 1800s growth seemed uncertain

• concern over unequal distribution of wealth

Lesson 10.2: How did countries outside Britain respond to the challenge of industrialization?

spread of industrialization from britain

• britain pioneered new technology and labor organization

• europe adopted british inventions after napoleonic wars

• by late 1800s western europe, us, and japan industrialized to varying degrees

uneven global industrialization and its significance

• industrialization outside the west was gradual and uneven

• large economic gap emerged between western and non-western regions

• multiple paths to industrialization existed, not a single british model

National and International Variations

comparison of per capita industrial production

• table uses index of 100 based on britain in 1900

• values show relative industrial output per person

• countries ordered by timing of industrial adoption

early industrial equality and british lead

• in 1750 most regions had similar industrial levels

• china and india were advanced and important in global trade

• britain pulled ahead by 1800 and widened gap by 1860

western european adoption of industrialization

• western europe followed britain during the 1800s

• timing and intensity varied by country

• belgium industrialized early due to resources and independence

second industrial revolution and late developers

• france grew slowly without rapid industrial expansion

• germany and united states surged after 1860

• southern and eastern europe industrialized later but made progress

contrast with non-western world and japan

• many non-western regions saw declines in industrial output

• europe and the us increased production while others stagnated

• japan industrialized rapidly after opening to the west in the 1850s

Industrialization in Continental Europe

european conditions and early industrial response

• eighteenth century growth in agriculture trade population and cottage industry

• continental firms emulated britain as industry accelerated in 1780s

• wars from 1793 to 1815 disrupted growth until peace resumed

challenges to continental industrialization

• british goods dominated markets with advanced efficient technology

• steam power required costly investments in coal iron and railroads

• limited capital and worker resistance slowed factory adoption

continental advantages in industrial catch-up

• strong traditions of putting-out and skilled artisans

• ability to borrow british technology rather than invent it

• independent governments used state power to promote industry

persistence of handicrafts and french strategy

• factory adoption was slow and uneven across regions

• handicraft and luxury production expanded in france

• focus on quality goods was a strategic choice not backwardness

Agents of Industrialization

british resistance and technology leakage

• britain tried to block export of workers and machinery

• laws restricted emigration and equipment exports until mid 1800s

• skilled workers spread technology abroad illegally

william cockerill and belgian industrial growth

• cockerill family built machinery in belgium from 1799

• john cockerill created major industrial complex in liège

• enterprises spread industrial knowledge across europe

entrepreneurs as agents of industrialization

• figures like fritz harkort promoted machinery production

• harkort learned in england and built engines in the ruhr

• efforts showed both ambition and financial risk

government support and protective policies

• continental governments aided industrial growth more than britain

• france used tariffs to protect against british imports

• german states formed the zollverein to encourage internal trade

state investment in transportation infrastructure

• governments funded roads canals and railroads after 1815

• belgium built a unified state owned rail network early

• railroads stimulated heavy industry and led industrial growth

banking innovation and limited liability

• private banks had avoided risky industrial investment

• belgian banks adopted corporate limited liability in 1830s

• new structure attracted investors and funded large industry

spread of industrial banking on the continent

• corporate banks expanded in france and german lands

• banks worked with governments to build railroads and heavy industry

• firms increasingly organized as limited liability corporations

accelerated industrial growth after 1850

• governments banks and entrepreneurs acted together

• industrial indicators grew rapidly despite 1873 crash

• leading nations narrowed but did not surpass britain

The Global Picture
limited global industrialization before 1860

• only us and japan fully adopted british industrial methods

• many countries tried but did not transition to industrial economies

• russia developed some steam-powered industry but remained largely agrarian

egypt and other non-western attempts

• egypt used british technology under reform-minded leadership

• industries could not compete with cheaper european imports

• focus remained on agricultural exports like sugar and cotton

colonial constraints and economic dependency

• european-controlled regions could not protect local industries

• india’s textile workers suffered under british trade policies

• latin america adopted steam for export agriculture, not domestic industry

deindustrialization and imperial vulnerability

• non-western regions lost industries and became economically dependent

• relative weakness increased susceptibility to later imperialism

• industrialization in china was delayed by uprisings and foreign indemnities

china’s delayed industrial response

• mechanized production only adopted at end of 19th century

• commercial rural society persisted with traditional industry

• attempts at modernization hindered by internal unrest and foreign pressures

Lesson 10.3: How did work and daily life evolve during the Industrial Revolution?

Work in Early Factories

early factory system and worker resistance

• cotton mills along rivers in 1770s with strict machine-paced labor

• cottage workers resisted discipline, fines, long hours, and supervision

• children and adolescents punished and docked pay for mistakes

contrast between cottage work and factory life

• families controlled pace and worked in spurts

• women and children mixed spinning with other tasks

• saturday pay followed by leisure and drinking

poorhouses and use of pauper children

• factories resembled poorhouses and industrial prisons

• fear and hatred of factory discipline increased resistance

• mill owners used pauper children as forced apprentices

child labor conditions and reform response

• children worked 13–14 hours daily in factory dormitories

• little or no pay with harsh physical punishment

• late 1700s reformers exposed abuses and shifted attitudes

Working Families and Children

changing factory labor patterns by the 1790s

• decline and 1802 ban of pauper apprentices

• factories moved to cities using steam power

• rise of urban wage laborers called the working class

family labor and adaptation to industrial work

• families worked together in mills and mines

• owners paid head of household for family labor

• children and women performed supporting and hauling tasks

migration and kinship networks

• workers relied on family and ethnic ties

• large Irish migration due to economic hardship and famine

• Irish formed neighborhoods and kept cultural traditions

decline of family labor and push for reform

• managers replaced family control in factories

• workers protested conditions affecting children

• reformers like robert owen argued for child labor laws

factory acts: English laws passed from 1802 to 1833 that limited the workday of child laborers and set minimum hygiene and safety requirements.

• broke pattern of families working tg → decline of children employed, less efficiency

• mines act of 1842: English law prohibiting underground work for all women and girls as well as for boys under ten

The New Sexual Division of Labor
new sexual division of labor after 1830s

• men became primary wage earners by 1850

• married women had limited job opportunities

• wives expected to focus on domestic duties

separate spheres for working-class women

• separate sphere: A gender division of labor with the wife at home as mother and homemaker and the husband as wage earner

• married women rarely worked full-time after first child

• poorest families relied on wives’ wages

• unmarried women filled factory, laundry, and domestic jobs

causes related to factory discipline and child care

• machine schedules conflicted with pregnancy and nursing

• factory work harder to combine with child care

• incentives for women to stay home if possible

urban poverty and domestic labor demands

• household work was time-consuming and exhausting

• lack of modern services increased burden

• outside wage labor seen as a second shift

gender segregation and social control

• women confined to low-paying traditional jobs

• factory mixing increased fears of sexual disorder

• job segregation used to regulate youth sexuality

middle-class domestic ideals and influence

• spread of separate spheres ideology

• reformers promoted home and family focus

• pressure on working-class women to leave paid labor

Living Standards for the Working Class

working-class living standards before 1840s

• wages rose slowly after 1815 but household income fell

• decline in child and married women labor offset gains

• productivity increases did not raise purchasing power

work intensity and loss of leisure

• longer work years and eleven-hour days

• fewer holidays and end of monday leisure

• shift to six-day workweeks by 1830

urbanization and harsh city life

• rapid growth of industrial cities

• overcrowding, poor sanitation, and disease

• low life expectancy and rising child mortality

consumption patterns and food costs

• cheaper cotton goods improved clothing access

• food prices rose faster than wages

• living standards stagnated or declined

improvements after mid-nineteenth century

• wage growth and falling prices after 1850

• advances in medicine, transport, and communication

• expanded food variety and urban amenities

community loss and social impact

• breakdown of rural communities and traditions

• increased anonymity and loneliness in cities

• loss of skills, autonomy, and social cohesion

Environmental Impacts of Industrialization

coal and the energy revolution

• coal replaced wood and powered industry

• massive rise in coal consumption

• enabled industrial growth and empire

environmental impact of coal burning

• soot and smoke polluted cities

• toxic and acidic emissions released

• acid rain identified in 1859

urban environmental hazards of industrialization

• lack of clean water and sewage systems

• waste dumped in rivers and open areas

• mining polluted rural water and soil

perceptions of smoke and smog

• cities covered in dense industrial smog

• smoke seen as sign of prosperity

• believed to purify air despite foul smell

reform efforts and gradual improvement

• 1880s reformers linked smoke to disease

• resistance from owners, workers, and government

• electric power later reduced pollution

Lesson 10.4: What were the social consequences of industrialization?

industrialization and social change

• rise of factory owners and industrial capitalists

• expanded middle class beyond merchants and professionals

• conflicts between middle-class employers and working class, supported by colonial slavery

The New Class of Factory Owners

early industrialists and economic competition

• faced production problems and uncertain profits

• reinvested much profit into machinery and business

• relied on family, friends, and skilled networks for labor and capital

backgrounds and opportunities

• came from both wealthy and modest families

• artisans, skilled workers, and marginalized groups seized chances

• early success easier before industries became large and formalized

education and inheritance

• formal education increasingly necessary for advancement

• leading industrialists often inherited established enterprises

• financial security improved across generations

women in middle-class industry

• wives and daughters had fewer business opportunities

• expected to focus on home, gentility, and motherhood

• distance from factories and commerce emphasized by 1850

Responses to Industrialization

Luddites: Group of handicraft workers who attacked factories in northern England in 1811 and later, smashing the new machines that they believed were putting them out of work

• many critics to industrialization, esp Romantics

• doctors reported new health problems, Malthus said workers could only earn enough to stay alive

pessimistic view accepted by Friedrich Engels, colleague of Karl Marx

• industrial poverty worse than old cottage agricultural workers → industrial capitalism consequence

• Marx and later socialists established his capitalist exploitation and increasing worker poverty

class-consciousness: Awareness of belonging to a distinct social and economic class whose interests might conflict with those of other classes

• society divided by relationship to means of production

• middle class defined as owners, working class as laborers

• class-consciousness arose as people recognized shared interests and conflicts

The Early British Labor Movement

work outside large factories

• in 1850, most britons still worked on farms or in domestic service

• many traditional jobs persisted, offering alternatives to industrial labor

• domestic service dominated by women

artisan shops and small-scale industry

• small workshops survived alongside large factories

• handicraft trades employed few workers with skilled tools

• some sectors, like iron goods, remained small-scale

working-class solidarity and class-consciousness

• developed in both small workshops and factories

• strikes and anticapitalist sentiment emerged by 1820s

• unemployment and stagnant wages reinforced class awareness

combination acts: British laws passed in 1799 that outlawed unions and strikes, favoring capitalist business people over skilled artisans. Bitterly resented and widely disregarded by many craft guilds, the acts were repealed by Parliament in 1824

liberalism and early labor restrictions

• eighteenth-century economic freedom limited worker action

• combination acts (1799) outlawed unions and strikes

• artisan wages and work rules threatened by capitalist practices

craftworker resistance and union formation

• artisans defied laws and organized unions

• unions controlled apprenticeships and bargained over wages

• strikes and collective action common, e.g., 1810 cotton spinners

national unions and robert owen

• owen promoted cooperative communities and industrial reform

• led efforts for national unions like grand national consolidated trades union

• collapse of national unions shifted focus to craft unions like amalgamated society of engineers

political activism and working-class identity

• chartist movement demanded universal male suffrage

• campaigned for ten-hour workday and cheap bread

• workers shaped industrial system and developed class consciousness

The Impact of Slavery

slavery and industrialization

• profits from colonial plantations were a small part of british income

• slave trade stimulated demand for british manufactured goods and finance

• infrastructure like canals and railroads funded by colonial trade

continued reliance on enslaved labor

• slave trade abolished 1807, slavery ended in british territories 1833

• british mills still relied on cotton from enslaved labor in the us by 1850

• industrial revolution closely linked to atlantic slavery and exploitation

Chapter 11: Reaction, Reform, and Revolution in Nineteenth-Century Politics, 11815–1850

political and cultural impact of the unfinished revolutions

• conservatives, led by metternich, reasserted control to stop liberal and democratic reforms in europe

• new ideologies (liberalism, nationalism, socialism) challenged conservative authority

• romanticism and revolutionary movements (greece, britain, france) inspired 1848 revolutions and lasting political change

Lesson 11.1: How was peace restored and maintained after the Napoleonic Wars?

congress of vienna and post-napoleonic order

• quadruple alliance (russia, prussia, austria, britain) sought to control france after napoleon

• congress of vienna (1814) aimed to create lasting peace and prevent future wars

• balance of power, territorial redrawing, and conservative restoration maintained ~50 years of european peace

The European Balance of Power

congress of vienna: A meeting of the Quadruple Alliance (Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain), restoration France, and smaller European states to fashion a general peace settlement that began after the defeat of Napoleon’s France in 1814

congress of vienna negotiations and the balance of power

• rare face-to-face summit of monarchs and ministers combined formal diplomacy with social events, shaping public opinion and early mass-media coverage

• france treated leniently to avoid resentment: bourbon monarchy restored, 1792 borders returned, no reparations, while defensive measures limited future aggression

• territorial rearrangements balanced power: netherlands created, german confederation formed, land swaps among austria, prussia, russia, britain, and congress system established to maintain long-term european peace

Metternich and Conservatism

metternich’s political ideology and career

• conservative, reactionary defense of monarchy and aristocracy

• influenced by french revolution and napoleonic wars

• managed crises of revolutionary age

metternich’s view on liberalism and governance

• blamed liberal middle-class revolutions for war and disorder

• supported strong, authoritarian monarchy to control society

• upheld organized religion as moral foundation of state

metternich’s defense of elite privileges

• aristocracy and church central to society

• liberalism linked to nationalism seen as threat to central europe

• conservatives valued tradition as foundation of human society

diversity of the austrian empire

• included austria, hungary, bohemia, lombardy-venetia

• spoke 11+ languages, many ethnic groups

• politically dominant groups were germans and hungarians

strengths and weaknesses of the austrian empire

• large population and territory gave economic and military power

• ethnic diversity threatened political unity

• needed to oppose liberalism and nationalism to stay intact

alliances with russia and ottoman empire

• multinational absolutist empires supporting conservatism

• ruling elites from dominant ethnic groups (russian orthodox, ottoman turks)

• both states preserved conservative order until crises in 1840s

Repressing the Revolutionary Spirit

Holy Alliance: An alliance formed by the conservative rulers of Austria, Prussia, and Russia in September 1815 that became a symbol of the repression of liberal and revolutionary movements all over Europe

Karlsbad decrees: Issued in 1819, these repressive regulations were designed to uphold Metternich’s conservatism, requiring the German states to root out subversive ideas and suppress any liberal organizations

Austria, Prussia, and the German Confederation

• German states remained independent with weak federal assembly

• Karlsbad Decrees (1819) banned liberal organizations, censored universities and newspapers, used spies to suppress reformers

Metternich’s conservative policies beyond central Europe

• limited reform in Spain and southern Italy

• 1820 revolutions briefly established constitutional monarchies

• Troppau Conference: principle of active intervention to restore autocratic rule

• Austrian army restored Ferdinand I in Naples; French army restored king in Spain

reaction in Russia

• Decembrist Uprising (1825) by army officers inspired by liberal ideas

• troops crushed protest; leaders executed or exiled

• conservative regimes used censorship, military, secret police, imprisonment, and execution to suppress reform

Limits to Conservative Power and Revolution in South America
Metternich and European conservatives

• called himself “chief Minister of Police in Europe”

• system suppressed liberalism effectively in central Europe until 1848

• could not prevent dynastic change in France (1830) or Belgian independence (1831)

South American revolutions

• 1810s: elites (Creoles) challenged Spanish Crown, inspired by Enlightenment ideals

• Creoles: wealthy, 5% of population; resented peninsulares, small ruling Spanish elite

• Majority population (enslaved Africans, Indigenous peoples, multiracial groups) at bottom of social hierarchy

Causes of revolt

• Napoleonic Wars weakened Spain, inspired ideas of rights

• Creoles hesitant due to fear of social upheaval or slave revolts

• Revolts began from below (people of color); Creoles later took leadership

Revolutionary outcomes

• Simón Bolívar: defeated Spanish in north, created short-lived Gran Colombia (1819–1830)

• José de San Martín: secured independence in southern South America by 1825

• Bolívar’s dream of federation failed; northern state fractured by 1830

• By 1840, borders resembled modern Latin America

Political consequences

• Liberal constitutions initially adopted but limited in practice

• Most non-Creoles and women excluded from voting

• Caudillos (strongmen) emerged, ruling by military strength, patronage, and populism

• Revolutions showed potential of liberal ideals and limits of conservative control

Lesson 11.2: What new ideologies emerged to challenge conservative government?

rise of radical political ideologies after 1815

• post 1815 thinkers adapted revolutionary ideas into new movements

• rejection of conservatism and traditional social structures

• french revolutionary ideals influenced lasting western political values

Liberalism and Middle Class

liberalism: The principal ideas of this movement were equality and liberty; liberals demanded representative government and equality before the law as well as individual freedoms such as freedom of the press, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, freedom of worship, and freedom from arbitrary arrest

• liberty and legal equality from american and french revolutions

• support for representative government and individual freedoms

• limited success and exclusion of many groups

laissez faire: A doctrine of economic liberalism that calls for unrestricted private enterprise and no government interference in the economy

• supported by industrial and commercial elites

• favored free trade and no government interference

• opposed by conservatives

adam smith and classical liberalism

• promoted free markets over mercantilism

• argued competition benefits society broadly

• foundation of economic liberalism

liberalism aligned with upper class interests

• property requirements limited voting rights

• unions banned to protect free competition

• workers women and middle classes excluded

republicanism: An expanded liberal ideology that endorsed universal democratic voting rights, at least for men, and radical equality for all

• rise as a radical alternative

• demanded universal male suffrage and equality

• accepted violence and state action if needed

• only partial alliance with liberals

The Growing Appeal of Nationalism

nationalism: The idea that each people had its own genius and specific identity that manifested itself especially in a common language and history, which often led to the desire for an independent political state

• gained popularity after 1815

• inspired by french revolution and napoleonic wars

• emphasized shared language culture history territory

national unity as an early challenge

• unity was mostly an ideal not reality

• dialects and ethnic diversity divided populations

• literacy media education and armies fostered shared culture

nationalism as a political goal

• promoted by educated middle class liberals

• argued nations had a right to freedom

• aimed to create independent nation states

nationalism and conflict in europe

• explosive in central and eastern europe

• empires suppressed nationalist movements

• others sought unification like italy and germany

industrialization and communication

• industrial society required better communication

• encouraged standardized national languages

• language movements sometimes pushed separatism

nations as imagined communities

• nations seen as modern creations

• built through shared identity and ideology

• reinforced by symbols rituals and traditions

nationalism linked to liberalism and republicanism

• nationalists often supported liberal or republican ideas

• believed people were the source of government

• unity needed to overcome class and local divisions

nationalism and international conflict

• emphasized differences between peoples

• fostered us versus them thinking

• led to rivalry and conflict between nation states

The FIrst Socialists

socialism: A backlash against the emergence of individualism and the fragmentation of industrial society, and a move toward cooperation and a sense of community; the key ideas were economic planning, greater social equality, and state regulation of property

• emerged as critique of liberalism nationalism capitalism

• response to industrialization and laissez faire

• sought moral and social renewal

core beliefs of early socialism

• desire to reduce poverty and inequality

• support for regulating or abolishing private property

• emphasis on planning equality and community

utopian socialists and model communities

• included saint simon fourier and owen

• aimed to create ideal cooperative societies

• experiments ultimately failed

saint simon and industrial positivism

• believed progress came from scientific organization

• favored rule by scientists engineers industrialists

• stressed planning public works and brotherhood

fourier and cooperative phalanxes

• proposed self sufficient communal living

• collective property and cooperation

• advocated women’s emancipation and sexual freedom

robert owen and practical socialism

• promoted worker welfare and unions

• envisioned cooperative industrial communities

• inspired later reform movements

anarchism and proudhon

• argued property was theft

• rejected states and authority

• favored loose worker associations

louis blanc and state centered reform

• supported universal suffrage

• wanted peaceful worker control of state

• argued for welfare and guaranteed jobs

rise of worker socialism in france

• workers opposed laissez faire restrictions

• developed class consciousness and collective action

• socialist movement formed in 1830s and 1840s

The Rise of Marxist Socialism
Marxism: An influential political program based on the socialist ideas of German radical Karl Marx, which called for a working-class revolution to overthrow capitalist society and establish a Communist state

• france led socialism in 1840s

• karl marx systematized socialist thought

• marxism became a lasting modern ideology

marx’s background and life

• trained as philosopher and journalist

• exiled for radical writings

• settled in london and wrote capital

intellectual influences on marx

• drew from economics philosophy history

• adapted smith ricardo and utopian socialists

• believed history followed scientific laws

class struggle as engine of history

• history driven by economic conflict

• society split into bourgeoisie and proletariat

• owners exploited workers through control of production

• bourgeoisie: The upper-class minority who owned the means of production and, according to Marx, exploited the working-class proletariat

  proletariat: The industrial working class who, according to Marx, were unfairly exploited by the profit-seeking bourgeoisie

revolution and communism

• proletariat would grow poorer and united

• violent revolution would overthrow bourgeoisie

• communism would end class struggle

marxist critique of capitalism

• labor became a commodity under capitalism

• workers paid less than value they produced

• surplus value taken as profit

capitalism as global and exploitative

• capitalism highly productive but unequal

• expanded worldwide in search of profit

• ideas like property and morality masked exploitation

impact of the communist manifesto

• movement small in 1848

• left wing groups initially divided

• marxism reshaped global radical politics

Lesson 11.3: What were the characteristics of the Romantic movement?

rise and spread of romanticism

• rejected enlightenment rationality and classicism

• emphasized emotion imagination and individualism

• developed from 1750 peaked by 1790s and declined after 1840

The Romantic Worldview

romanticism: An artistic movement at its height from about 1790 to the 1840s that was in part a revolt against classicism and the Enlightenment, characterized by a belief in emotional exuberance, unrestrained imagination, and spontaneity in both art and personal life

• hate voltaire and rousseau

contrast with enlightenment

• intuition and nostalgia over reason and progress

• embraced religious ecstasy over secularization

• explored love desire hatred and the self

romanticism and nature

• enchanted by storms forests and wilderness

• nature as beauty or spiritual source

• opposed industrialization and idealized the past

romanticism and history

• history seen as organic and dynamic

• historical novels and scholarly works explored national destiny

• encouraged people to connect with the past

romantic lifestyle and values

• lived intensely with emotional extremes

• rejected societal norms and embraced bohemian life

• aimed for full development of individual potential

Romantic Literature

romantic poetry in england

• first major poets: blake wordsworth coleridge scott

• later figures: byron shelley keats

• poetry emphasized ordinary language and powerful emotion

wordsworth and coleridge

• lake district community and collaboration

• lyrical ballads abandoned classical conventions

• nature seen as sacred and morally meaningful

romantic literary circles and mary shelley

• gathered around shelley and byron

• mary shelley wrote frankenstein in 1816

• combined literary innovation with personal experience

french romanticism

• emerged 1820–1850 in lamartine hugo sand

• hugo combined extreme emotion, historical settings, and social liberty

• political views of writers varied widely

german romanticism and nationalism

• intertwined literature and national identity

• studied folk life and preserved traditions

• grimms collected folktales as national heritage

slavic romanticism and nation-building

• turned spoken peasant languages into written forms

• strengthened regional national identities

• fueled independence movements in multi-ethnic empires

Romanticism in Art and Music

romantic painting in england

• turner depicted nature’s power and terror

• constable painted peaceful, pastoral landscapes

• reflected emotional range of romanticism

romantic music and composers

• abandoned strict classical structures

• expanded orchestra and evoked powerful emotions

• created musical “landscapes” expressing human feeling

music as cultural prestige

• music became an artistic end in itself

• virtuosos like liszt celebrated as cultural heroes

• elevated public status of musicians

beethoven and emotional extremes

• used contrasting themes to create drama and resolution

• embodied romantic ideals in life and work

• overcame personal struggles, including deafness, to compose masterpieces

Lesson 11.4: How did reforms and revolutions challenge conservatism after 1815?

political unrest 1815–1848

• romantics transformed arts while politics shifted

• liberal nationalist and socialist forces challenged conservatism

• change occurred through reform or violent uprising in greece britain france

The Greek War of Independence
greek war of independence

• greece revolted against ottoman rule 1821–1829

• united by language religion and nationalist ideas

• supported by european romantic writers and public opinion

european intervention and diplomacy

• metternich and holy alliance initially opposed revolution

• britain france russia pressured ottomans and defeated their fleet at navarino

• russian invasion forced ottoman withdrawal

outcomes and consequences

• greece declared independent 1830 with a german king in 1833

• war caused devastation and resentment toward imposed monarchy

• inspired other nationalist movements and signaled ottoman decline

Liberal Reform in Great Britain

gradual reform and political context in britain

• britain stable but aristocracy dominated

• limited voting rights ~8 percent of population

• tories and whigs led by aristocrats, workers protested

corn laws of 1815

• corn laws: British laws governing the import and export of grain, which were revised in 1815 to place high tariffs on imported grain, thus benefiting the aristocracy but making food prices high for working people

• high tariffs on imported grain

• increased bread prices benefiting aristocracy

• triggered economic distress for working class

protests and government repression

• 1817 labor demonstrations and radical support

• peterloo massacre 1819, 18 killed, 600+ wounded

• peterloo massacre: The British army’s violent suppression in 1819 of a protest that took place at Saint Peter’s Fields in Manchester in reaction to the revision of the Corn Laws

• six acts restricted press and mass meetings

middle-class pressure and liberal reforms

• industrial/commercial groups demanded political influence

• tory government improved urban administration and civil equality

• encouraged middle-class push for parliamentary reform

reform bill of 1832

• reform bill of 1832: A major British political reform that increased the number of male voters by about 50 percent and gave political representation to new industrial areas

• whigs responded to middle-class interests

• house of commons strengthened, rotten boroughs eliminated

• voting expanded to ~12 percent adult men

chartist movement 1838–1848

• called for universal male suffrage

• petitions to parliament in 1839, 1842, 1848 rejected

• working class learned mass political organization

anti-corn law league and repeal 1846

• alliance of working-class and middle-class

• famine threat from irish potato crop failure

• repeal of corn laws, free trade doctrine strengthened

ten hours act 1847 and political dynamics

• limited workday for women and young people in factories

• tories competed with middle-class for working-class support

• peaceful political evolution through temporary alliances

Ireland and the Great Famine

irish land system and exploitation

• majority catholic peasants rented from minority protestant landlords

• absentee landlords set rents and evicted tenants at will

• middleman system maximized landlord profit

living conditions and poverty

• peasants lived in extreme misery

• contemporary accounts highlighted desperate conditions

• french traveler compared ireland to slavery and indigenous suffering

population growth and potato dependence

• population doubled 1780–1840 from 4m to 8m

• potato staple allowed survival on small plots

• early marriage and large families supported labor needs

potato crop failures and famine

• frequent crop deficiencies from 1820 onward

• major failures 1845–46, 1848, 1851 led to widespread starvation

• famine devastated already poor rural population

• great famine: The result of four years of potato crop failure in the late 1840s in Ireland, a country that had grown dependent on potatoes as a dietary staple.

british government response

• slow and limited aid due to free-trade ideology

• continued tax collection and landlord rent demands

• tenants evicted despite famine

demographic impact of famine

• 1 million emigrated, up to 1.5 million died

• elderly and young most affected

• ireland’s population declined unlike other european countries

rise of irish nationalism

• famine deepened anti-british sentiment

• fueled campaigns for land reform and home rule

• collective memory influenced later independence movements

The Revolution of 1830 in France

french constitutional charter under louis xviii

• 1814 charter protected middle-class and peasant gains from revolution

• allowed some intellectual/artistic freedom and created parliament

• moderate royalists controlled lower chamber 1816–1824

limited suffrage and voter composition

• only 100,000 wealthy men out of 30 million could vote

• voters included businessmen, ex-revolutionaries, large landowners, bourbons, bonapartists

• old aristocracy was a minority within the electorate

charles x and reactionary policies

• attempted to restore old order 1824–1830

• blocked by deputies, turned to military adventure in algeria

• conquest of algeria 1830–1847 led to settlement by european immigrants

july revolution of 1830

• charles x revoked charter, censored press, reduced middle-class voting rights

• paris insurrection led by artisans and small traders toppled him in three days

• upper middle class installed louis philippe, duke of orléans

european ripple effects

• belgium gained independence from netherlands

• swiss cantons amended constitutions after liberal pressure

• polish nationalist revolt crushed by russian army

louis philippe and limited change

• accepted 1814 charter and revolutionary symbols

• upper middle class maintained status quo and narrow liberal institutions

• popular demands for reform by republicans, democrats, and poor largely ignored

Lesson 11.5: What were the main causes and consequences of the revolutions of 1848?

european crisis and early revolts, late 1840s

• bad harvests and uneven industrial development caused widespread poverty

• radical ideologies gained popularity after french revolution

• limited uprisings in kraków, portugal, switzerland, and sicily

full-scale revolution of 1848

• france erupted in february, inspiring revolts across europe

• ordinary people demanded political and national rights from authoritarian governments

• some countries untouched: great britain, belgium, netherlands, ottoman and russian empires

outcomes of 1848 revolutions

• conservative governments eventually restored by violent suppression by end of 1849

• national independence, democratic constitutions, and social reform briefly seemed achievable

• revolutionary momentum encouraged long-term spread of new political ideals

A Democratic Republic in France

revolution in paris, february 1848

• louis philippe’s “bourgeois monarchy” served wealthy elites and ignored reforms

• economic depression and crop failures worsened conditions

• popular revolt forced king to abdicate and provisional republic declared

creation of second republic

• national assembly drafted democratic constitution with universal male suffrage

• decrees included liberty, fraternity, equality, workplace reforms, abolition of death penalty and slavery

• revolutionary momentum spread across europe

divisions within revolutionary coalitions

• moderate middle-class republicans opposed further social reforms

• radical republicans and urban artisans supported socialist measures and worker-owned businesses

• disagreements weakened revolutionary unity in paris and other european hotspots

economic crisis and national workshops

• louis blanc and alexandre martin advocated “right to work” and cooperative workshops

• compromise created national workshops as public works program

• enrollment surged from 10,000 to 120,000, with another 80,000 unable to join

april elections and republican defeat

• first-time voters elected majority monarchists and conservatives

• moderate republicans won about 270 seats, radicals/socialists only 80

• results reflected peasant support for property and hostility toward socialism

clash of classes and arms, may–june 1848

• executive committee excluded socialist representatives

• artisans and workers attempted uprising in paris on may 15

• government and middle-class national guard crushed revolt, dissolved workshops on june 22

Revolution and Reaction in the Austrian Empire

europe-wide revolutionary excitement, 1848

• news of french revolution sparked revolts across sweden, denmark, spain, italian states

• increased popular political awareness and spread new political ideologies

• reinforced idea that the state was responsible for citizens’ well-being

revolution phases in central europe

• first, liberals demanded constitutions, civil liberties, representative government

• second, revolutionary coalitions broke down after initial victories

• third, monarchies, aristocracies, and armies reasserted authority and revoked reforms

austrian empire revolution

• began in hungary with demands for autonomy, press freedom, civil liberties, universal suffrage

• uprisings in lombardy-venetia and vienna forced emperor ferdinand i to promise reforms

• resignation of metternich marked apparent collapse of absolutist order

instability of revolutionary coalition

• abolition of serfdom satisfied peasants, reducing their revolutionary interest

• urban revolutionaries divided over socialist workshops and universal male suffrage

• class divisions weakened political unity

conflicting national aspirations

• hungarian revolutionaries sought centralized nation, minority groups resisted

• czech and german nationalist tensions in bohemia undermined coalition

• monarchy exploited ethnic divisions to maintain power

conservative aristocratic counterrevolution

• archduchess sophia organized nobles to restore authority

• army crushed prague revolt in june 1848 and italian insurrection by august

• vienna retaken in october with heavy artillery, over 4,000 casualties

restoration of hapsburg control

• franz joseph crowned emperor in december 1848

• hungary subdued by russian intervention in june 1849

• hapsburgs ruled hungary as conquered territory for several years

Prussia, the German Confederation, and the Frankfurt National Assembly
prussia and liberal reform, 1848

• liberals sought constitutional monarchy in prussia to lead german unification

• crop failures and economic crises fueled demands for reform

• urban crowds pushed for liberal reforms and a national parliament

riots and king’s concessions

• berlin artisans and factory workers rioted, allied briefly with middle-class liberals

• king friedrich wilhelm iv promised a liberal constitution and integration into a german state

• tension between worker demands and aristocratic resistance emerged

workers vs middle-class liberals

• urban workers pressed for democratic and socialist reforms beyond moderate liberalism

• prussian constituent assembly convened to draft constitution

• conservative clique rallied around king to counter-revolution

frankfurt national assembly

• elections across german confederation for federal parliament

• delegates were elites: lawyers, professors, businessmen

• advocated moderate national liberalism, ignored radical worker, peasant, and socialist demands

greater germany: A liberal plan for German national unification that included the German-speaking parts of the Austrian Empire, put forth at the National Assembly in 1848 but rejected by Austrian rulers

• national assembly considered greater germany including austria vs lesser germany without austria

• austrian resistance blocked greater germany plan

• counter-revolution gained strength in prussia and other german states

frankfurt constitution and reaction, 1849

• national assembly drafted liberal constitution for lesser germany and offered crown to friedrich wilhelm iv

• prussia crushed popular movements, disbanded constituent assembly

• frankfurt deputies acted too timidly, assembly dissolved by june 1849

friedrich wilhelm and german unification, 1850–1851

• king wanted authoritarian unification, austria and russia blocked him

• german confederation re-established, decade of reaction followed

• state surveillance, exile of revolutionaries, liberals abandoned unification

moderate reforms and ideological impact

• moderate monarchs granted conservative constitutions and weak parliaments

• limited popular representation remained under aristocratic control

• revolutionary experience spread liberalism, socialism, nationalism with popular appeal

Chapter 12: The Social Effects of Industrialization and the Emerging Urban Society, 1840-1914

Lesson 12.1: What were the main changes in urban life in the nineteenth century?

Industry and the Growth of Cities

traditional causes of poor urban living conditions

• overcrowding, poverty, and limited medical knowledge

• walking cities forced people to live close together

• high death rates offset by rural migration

industrial revolution and urban expansion

• factories moved to cities due to steam power

• cities offered labor, transport, and markets

• overcrowded cities grew rapidly

britain as an early example of urbanization

• city populations grew rapidly in the 1800s

• majority of population became urban by 1891

• other countries followed similar patterns

housing conditions in industrial cities

• land used intensively with little open space

• overcrowded row houses and small apartments

• homelessness and reliance on workhouses

urban sanitation before modern systems

• waste dumped in streets and open drains

• cesspools used beneath living spaces

• nightsoilmen removed waste periodically

sewage crisis and disease spread

• flush toilets overwhelmed cesspools

• sewage leaked into drinking water

• cholera and typhoid epidemics spread

london as a case study in urban crisis

• population growth worsened sewage problems

• thames polluted with untreated waste

• repeated deadly cholera outbreaks

environmental pollution in industrial cities

• coal smoke caused severe air pollution

• industrial fogs disrupted daily life

• rivers became biologically dead

responsibility for poor urban conditions

• lack of transportation increased crowding

• slow government response and weak regulations

• limited understanding of germs and hygiene

The Public Health Movement

shift from fatalism to reform in urban life

• growing belief that conditions could be improved

• london became a center of reform efforts

• public health movement began

• utilitarianism: The idea of Jeremy Bentham that social policies should promote the “greatest good for the greatest number

edwin chadwick and utilitarian reform

• applied utilitarian ideas to social problems

• argued disease caused poverty

• supported government action to prevent disease

chadwick’s 1842 report and public health law

• documented poor sanitary conditions

• linked disease to environmental filth

• led to britain’s first public health law

john snow and cholera investigation

• questioned the miasma theory

• traced cholera to contaminated water source

• urged urban authorities to act

• great stink: In the summer of 1858 appalling fumes from the polluted River Thames threatened to shut down London, providing a boost to the emerging public health movement

resistance and the great stink

• reforms faced scientific and political opposition

• miasma theory remained influential

• 1858 stench forced urgent action

bazalgette and modern sewer systems

• built large underground sewer network

• redirected waste away from the thames

• inspired similar projects internationally

smallpox and vaccination efforts

• U.K. vaccination acts: Legislation introduced in the United Kingdom during the nineteenth century requiring that all children be vaccinated against smallpox

• vaccination reduced deadly smallpox infections

• governments mandated childhood vaccination

• resistance existed but disease nearly eradicated

growth and impact of the public health movement

• reforms spread across europe and the united states

• governments accepted responsibility for health

• death rates declined despite continued pollution

The Bacterial Revolution

limits of early sanitation and medical understanding

• sanitation improved life but disease causes were unclear

• miasma theory weakened but mechanisms were unknown

• need for new medical knowledge

pasteur and the germ theory of disease

• fermentation research led to germ theory: The idea that disease was caused by the spread of living organisms that could be controlled

• pasteurization showed heat could kill organisms

• diseases linked to specific germs

koch and advances in microbiology

• pure cultures of bacteria developed

• links between germs and specific diseases proven

• vaccines later developed, antibiotics much later

germ theory and hospital reform

• antiseptic methods reduced infections

• sterilization of tools and hands adopted

• surgical and childbirth safety improved

global spread of public health and medicine

• medicine expanded through colonialism and missions

• women entered medical careers abroad

• western medical education spread internationally

impact of the bacterial revolution

• major decline in mortality after 1880

• deadly diseases largely eliminated

• urban death rates fell to rural levels

Improvements in Urban Planning

importance of urban planning for improved city life

• france led reforms under napoleon iii

• rebuilding paris aimed to improve health, employment, and order

• haussmann was appointed to modernize the city

conditions in paris before renovation

• overcrowded city with narrow and unhealthy streets

• large share of population lived in very small central area

• few parks and high death rates

haussmann’s transformation of paris

• old buildings demolished to create wide boulevards

• slums removed but poor residents displaced

• housing, parks, sewers, and water systems improved

spread of haussmann-style planning across europe

• other cities removed old fortifications

• ring roads and boulevards built for traffic and growth

• public buildings constructed along new roads

Public Transportation
rise of mass public transportation in cities

• urban planning expanded alongside transit systems

• horse-drawn streetcars introduced in european cities in the 1870s

• electric streetcars spread widely after first use in berlin in 1881

advantages and growth of electric streetcars

• electric streetcars were cheaper, faster, and cleaner than horse-drawn ones

• used daily by workers and for leisure travel on weekends

• ridership grew dramatically from the late 1800s to 1910

impact of mass transit on housing and suburban growth

• streetcars enabled access to better housing for wider social groups

• cities expanded outward and became less overcrowded

• suburban commuting developed beyond city limits

Lesson 12.2: How did class and gender reinforce social difference in the nineteenth century?

modern class society and its complexity

• marx predicted two opposing social classes

• nineteenth century society became more layered instead

• gender shaped how class status was experienced

The Distribution of Income

real wages and gender gaps

• real wages rose steadily from 1850 to 1914, nearly doubling for british men

• women and children earned less and held lower-status jobs

• income improvements did not eliminate poverty

aristocracy and new rich elite

• aristocracy retained social prestige and wealth, often allied with business

• commercial elite intermarried with aristocracy, forming new upper class (~5% of population)

• aristocrats increasingly treated land and resources as business assets

income inequality and social hierarchy

• richest 5% earned about a third of national income, top 20% earned 50–60%

• lower 80% shared 40–50%, bottom 30% earned 10% or less

• middle classes were under 20% of population, limiting overall wealth distribution

gendered class differences

• wealthy women rarely needed paid work

• middle-class women increasingly worked in teaching, nursing, social work

• poor women took factory, domestic, and low-paid labor

diversity and fragmentation of classes

• industrialization and urban growth created complex social hierarchy

• wide range of jobs, skills, and earnings blurred class boundaries

• neither middle nor working classes acted as unified groups

The People and Occupations of the Middle Classes

middle-class diversity

• top tier wealthy through land and title, larger middle class earned mental rather than physical labor

• occupations spanned a wide range of professional and administrative roles

• women had limited access to higher-status positions

professionalization of skilled occupations

• professions like law, medicine, engineering, architecture required training and credentials

• dominated by men, limited entry for amateurs and women

• professional status increased wages, prestige, and influence

• professionalization: The process in which members of skilled trades and occupations established criteria for training and certification and banded together in professional organizations to defend their interests

lower middle class and service sector

• jobs in commerce, government, and business grew

• male shopkeepers, small business owners, and white-collar employees expanded

• women employed as shop assistants, clerks, typists

white-collar workers and social mobility

• owned little property, earnings comparable to skilled workers

• commitment to middle-class ideals and status symbols

• work offered women income and independence outside the home

women and domestic ideology

• many accepted “separate spheres” and focused on homemaking

• some entered charity, social work, and public service

• volunteer and paid roles in schools, hospitals, and workhouses

women in education and health professions

• nursing, teaching, and social work considered suitable for women

• by 1911, majority of teachers and nurses in england were women

• provided limited professional independence and employment opportunities

women in higher education and professional fields

• universities gradually admitted female students by 1900

• pioneering women like marie curie and franziska tiburtius entered science and medicine

• broke into professions previously reserved for men

The People and Occupations of the Working Classes

working-class prevalence and rural/urban shift

• four-fifths of population were working class

• eastern europe: many still peasants and farmhands

• western/central europe: most had left agriculture by 1900

diversity within urban working class

• range of skills, earnings, and experiences expanded

• distinction between skilled artisans and unskilled workers blurred

• working-class women often worked to support families

labor aristocracy defined

• highly skilled men (~15% of working class)

• earned double unskilled workers but less than servant-keeping classes

• included construction bosses, foremen, and traditional handicrafts

• labor aristocracy: The highly skilled workers, such as factory foremen and construction bosses, who made up about 15 percent of the working classes from about 1850 to 1914

labor aristocracy in flux

• industrialization reduced traditional crafts

• new skilled roles emerged (shipbuilders, locomotive engineers)

• labor elite status was unstable

values and behavior of labor aristocracy

• emphasized morality, saving, children’s education, good housing

• wives rarely worked outside home

• discouraged drinking and sexual permissiveness

semiskilled workers

• established male construction workers near top

• factory workers formed a large semiskilled group

• unmarried women increasingly part of industrial workforce

unskilled workers

• day laborers: longshoremen, teamsters, helpers

• self-employed: street vendors and market people

• generally unorganized, low pay, poor living conditions

working-class women in domestic service

• largest group of unskilled women

• often recent rural migrants

• long hours, low pay, limited independence, risk of exploitation

attractions of domestic service

• better pay and stability than farm work

• more varied marriage prospects

• access to urban culture: theaters, music halls, busy streets

women in sweated industries

• home-based piecework after 1850: textiles, laundry, clothing

• children often assisted

• produced inexpensive ready-made goods for shops and stores

• sweater industries: Poorly paid handicraft production, often carried out by married women paid by the piece and working at home

Prostitution

prostitution as employment for working-class women

• legal and state-regulated in much of europe

• provided income when other jobs were scarce

• large numbers registered in cities like paris and berlin

working conditions and social acceptance

• clients mostly lower-class men, some middle- and upper-class

• offered temporary financial independence but work was dangerous

• tolerated among working classes as a stage of life

middle-class concerns and public health regulation

• prostitution seen as immoral and a threat to social order

• spread of syphilis heightened public anxiety

• contagious diseases acts required medical exams and confinement

feminist opposition and consequences

• josephine butler led campaign against abusive laws

• acts repealed in 1886

• registration and state control increased stigma and male dominance

The Leisure Pursuits of the Working Classes

working-class leisure and drinking

• drinking remained the main pastime for men

• heavy drinking declined and became less socially acceptable

• pubs became social and political spaces with women participating

rise of organized sports

• cruel sports declined by 1880s

• commercialized sports like horse racing and soccer gained popularity

• gambling on sports encouraged literacy

music halls and popular entertainment

• music halls and vaudeville theaters thrived across europe

• audiences included men and women

• humor focused on drinking, relationships, and family life

Faith and Religion

religion as solace and revival

• early nineteenth century saw religious revival across europe

• new movements included theosophy, adventism, spiritualism, christian science, salvation army

• popular devotion included fervid marian practices and growth of mosques and jewish communities

decline of church attendance among urban workers

• church construction lagged behind urban growth

• churches seen as conservative, defending hierarchy and middle-class morality

• women more religious than men, urban workingmen less engaged

religion and ethnic identity

• in the us, churches linked to ethnicity rather than class or politics

• competing denominations encouraged participation

• similar patterns occurred in europe where churches served ethnic communities

Lesson 12.3: How did urbanization affect family life and gender roles?

Lifestyle of the Middle Classes

• shared tastes in food, housing, clothing, and behavior distinguished them from workers

• employment of full-time servants signaled entry into the “servant-keeping classes”

consumption and leisure

• well-fed, well-housed, and able to spend on entertainment, travel, music, and literature

• access to clothing, department stores, private carriages, and cultural activities reflected rising social status

morality and social norms

• stressed hard work, self-discipline, and personal achievement

• emphasized sexual purity, fidelity, and Christian morals

• vices like drunkenness and gambling condemned; individuals blamed for personal failure

Middle-Class Marriage and Courtship Rituals

middle-class romantic ideals

• by the 1850s, middle-class couples were expected to marry for love rather than convenience or social advantage

• companionate marriage emphasized emotional bonds, popularized in novels, advice manuals, and art

• companionate marriage: Marriage based on romantic love and middle-class family values that became increasingly dominant in the second half of the nineteenth century

courtship and engagement norms

• strict supervision and chaperoning limited premarital interaction

• secret engagements led to public announcements, with physical intimacy tightly restricted

• class boundaries strongly enforced

marriage rules and gender roles

• men had to be financially established to marry; some never married

• young women had little experience or independence, often entering marriage directly from home or finishing school

• men seen as protectors, women as emotionally devoted, creating unequal partnerships

• property and legal rights typically favored husbands, reinforcing male dominance in marriage

Middle- and Working- Class Sexuality

gender and sexual double standards

• middle-class men seen as naturally sexual, women as pure and chaste

• men often sought lower-class women or prostitutes, while premarital sex for middle-class women was unacceptable

working-class sexual norms

• early 19th-century workers more accepting of premarital sex, high illegitimacy rates

• by late 19th century, premarital pregnancy often led to marriage, reducing illegitimacy

spread of middle-class family ideals

• working-class families adopted respectability and stability

• romantic love and improving economic conditions strengthened marriage and family institutions

Separate Spheres and the Importance of Homemaking

gendered division of labor

• after 1850, wives’ work became increasingly separate from husbands’

• middle-class women focused on home and family, men occupied public sphere

• working-class women also contributed to income but managed household duties

• separate spheres: A gender division of labor with the wife at home as mother and homemaker and the husband as wage earner

middle-class home and private sphere

• private home symbolized status and refuge from public world

• separate bedrooms and parlors created a sanctuary of comfort and privacy

• servants enabled women to maintain domestic order and leisure

working-class adaptation of ideals

• working-class families adopted middle-class values but lacked full means

• women managed home and created homelike environment despite men’s absence or pub culture

• challenges included alcoholism, domestic violence, and economic constraints

critique and reconsideration of separate spheres

• restricted women’s education and employment opportunities

• some scholars argue specialization improved household efficiency and consumer behavior

• husband’s wage and wife’s homemaking maximized family well-being

importance of domesticity and family

• homemaking involved complex, valuable tasks like cooking, cleaning, and child care

• pride in home and emotional ties strengthened in working- and middle-class families

• domesticity became culturally central, reflected in popular expressions like “Home, Sweet Home”

Child Rearing
emphasis on maternal care

• growing focus on love and attention mothers gave their babies, especially among comfortable classes

• specialized books on child-rearing and infant hygiene, e.g., gustav droz’s papa, mama, and baby

• mothers increasingly breast-fed, abandoned swaddling, and fewer illegitimate babies were left as foundlings

smaller families and child investment

• birthrates declined across europe by the late 19th century

• parents limited children to improve economic and social prospects and provide better education and opportunities

• contraceptive methods became more widely used, including rhythm, withdrawal, condoms, and diaphragms

parenting and middle-class pressures

• parents aimed to instill self-control, morality, and self-fulfillment

• corporal punishment declined but emotional pressure and surveillance increased

• concerns over sexuality and strict gender roles created tension within families

father-child relationships

• fathers often distant, focusing on work and setting conditional approval based on achievement

• domestic staff handled much child-rearing in wealthy households

working-class children’s independence

• adolescents often entered the workforce, gaining wages and negotiating independence from parents

• working-class youth could leave home earlier than middle-class counterparts, who remained dependent until completing education or marriage

Lesson 12.4: What were the most important changes in science and culture?

The Triumph of Science in Industry

science drives practical and intellectual progress

• late 1700s industrial breakthroughs spurred scientific inquiry into steam engines, furnaces, and other technologies

• 1830s onward saw explosive growth of fundamental discoveries increasingly applied to everyday life

• theory and practice began to reinforce each other, transforming knowledge into material benefits

applications in biology, physics, and medicine

• louis pasteur advanced biology and medical sciences, improving public health

• thermodynamics studied heat and mechanical energy, applied to engineering and chemical processes

• science increasingly translated into technologies that improved human life

• thermodynamics: A branch of physics built on Newton’s laws of mechanics that investigated the relationship between heat and mechanical energy

advances in chemistry and electricity

• mendeleev created periodic table; chemistry divided into specialties including organic chemistry

• german chemists converted coal tar into synthetic dyes, dominating global production by 1900

• electricity evolved from curiosity to practical use in telegraphs, electrochemistry, and central power

industrial research and second industrial revolution

• research and development (r&d) formalized between 1880–1913

• technological innovation drove strong economic growth, urban reform, and rising living standards

• scientific advances modeled systematic problem-solving in industry

• second industrial revolution: The burst of technological innovation and science-driven industrialization that promoted strong economic growth in the last third of the nineteenth century

broader social and intellectual impact

• popular awareness of science grew through newspapers, magazines, and everyday experience

• science reinforced enlightenment ideas: natural laws govern processes, minimizing divine or human control

• scientific methods gained prestige, positioning experiment and theory as the primary route to truth

Darwin and Natural Selection

scientific challenges to traditional beliefs

• lyell proposed uniformitarianism: earth shaped by slow, ongoing processes, not cataclysms

• lamarck suggested life evolved through continuous environmental adaptation

• these ideas challenged the traditional belief in divine creation

darwin and the theory of evolution

• darwin collected specimens on a global voyage, observing species variation

• concluded life evolved from common ancestors through gradual change

• evolution occurs through natural selection, favoring traits that aid survival

mechanism of natural selection

• darwin influenced by malthus: populations grow faster than food supply

• chance variations help some individuals survive while others perish

• advantageous traits spread through reproduction, shaping species over time

• evolution: body of thought, based on the ideas of Charles Darwin, that applied the theory of biological evolution to human affairs and saw the human race as driven by an unending economic struggle that would determine the “survival of the fittest

impact and controversy of darwinism

• suggested evolution without divine intervention, humans not unique species

• conservatives saw ideas as anti-christian, critics mocked human descent from apes

• others hailed darwin as a groundbreaking scientific thinker

social darwinism and human society

• herbert spencer applied natural selection to humans and society

• argued economic struggle determined “survival of the fittest”

• ideas justified nationalism and imperialism, casting poor as weak and prosperous as strong

• social darwinism: body of thought, based on the ideas of Charles Darwin, that applied the theory of biological evolution to human affairs and saw the human race as driven by an unending economic struggle that would determine the “survival of the fittest”

The Modern University and the Social Sciences

modernization of european universities

• by 1880s universities were enlarged, professionalized, and emphasized research

• advanced students conducted independent projects in seminars and labs

• professoriate diversified, creating departments from anthropology to zoology

rise of social sciences

• human and social sciences emerged alongside hard sciences

• social scientists used quantitative data on birthrates, crime, population, prostitution

• focus was understanding modern society rather than revolutionary change

sociology and max weber

• sociology analyzed contemporary and historical social groups

• weber linked capitalism to protestant ethics in northern europe

• protestantism encouraged hard work, saving, and investing, supporting capitalist development

weber on modern society

• ideas were as important as economics in capitalism, challenging marxism

• modern society alienated individuals, creating “specialists without spirit, hedonists without heart”

• wrote on capitalism, bureaucracy, industrialization, agriculture, political leadership

emile durkheim

• studied social and psychic basis of religion and society

• suicide caused by anomie, a sense of rootlessness and lack of tradition

• proposed that a new moral order might relieve societal alienation

other sociologists

• tonnies: industrialization transformed “community” to “society,” increasing selfish individualism

• le bon: alienated individuals in crowds lose self-control and can be manipulated by leaders

• critique emphasized alienation, bureaucratic rationalization, and loss of traditional support

bleak view of modern society

• sociologists acknowledged some benefits of rationalization but warned of social costs

• individuals seen as isolated, seeking connection amid alienation

• predictions foreshadowed the rise of movements (communist and fascist) offering identity and community

Realism in Art and Literature

realism in art and literature

• emerged around 1850, dominated western culture until 1890s

• focused on ordinary life with factual objectivity, rejected romanticism

• often depicted shocking or taboo subjects like labor strikes, violence, sexuality, alcoholism

• realism: A literary movement that, in contrast to Romanticism, stressed the depiction of life as it actually was

french realist artists

• courbet, millet, daumier painted everyday life, especially workers and peasants

• burial at ornans (1849) challenged traditional heroic subjects

• somber colors and simple compositions emphasized realism over grandeur

french literary realism

• balzac, flaubert, zola portrayed society in detail, showing social and moral issues

• balzac’s human comedy depicted thousands of characters across all social sectors

• father goriot shows ambition and societal greed affecting personal integrity

flaubert and middle-class critique

• madame bovary examines middle-class materialism and dullness

• story follows emma bovary’s failed attempts at romance and luxury

• critiques romantic novels and theater as influences on dissatisfaction

zola and working-class life

• novels focused on harsh realities of poor and working-class life

• examples include nana (prostitute) and the earth (peasant family struggles)

• germinal shows sympathy for socialism and social injustice

english literary realism

• george eliot and thomas hardy depicted ordinary people constrained by social norms

• middlemarch and tess of the d’urbervilles show struggles with prejudice and misfortune

• emphasized psychological depth and moral complexity

russian realism and moralizing

• tolstoy combined realism with moral philosophy, especially in war and peace

• portrays human history as shaped by necessity, free will limited

• central message values love, trust, and family as enduring human values

Chapter 13: The Age of Nationalism, 1850-1914

Lesson 13.1: What were the main features of the authoritarian nation-state built by Napoleon III?

early nationalism → liberal, idealistic, democratic, radical, but also found in authoritarian states

France’s Second Republic

louis napoleon never participated in politics but won ez bc universal male suffrage

• 1) romantics love his name 2) middle class feared socialist challenge and revolt and chaos of revolution of 1848, wanted tough rule to provide stability and protect property 3) louis napoleon advertised positive socioeconomic pamphlets before election

vision of unity and authoritarian democracy

• promoted national unity and social progress over individual interests

• argued only a strong leader like napoleon i could defeat elite corruption

• proposed rule by plebiscites and direct democracy to legitimize authority

constitutional presidency and political compromise 1848

• elected president in 1848 by overwhelming majority

• shared power with conservative national assembly

• approved church influence in education and restricted suffrage to gain support

coup d’état and establishment of the second empire 1851–1852

• staged coup d’état on december 2 1851 with army backing

• crushed resistance and restored universal male suffrage

• plebiscites in 1851 and 1852 created the second french empire and made him emperor

Napoleon’s III Second Empire

economic growth and modernization 1852–1860s

• promoted investment banks railroads and public works including paris rebuilding

• industrial expansion raised business profits wages and reduced unemployment

• economic success strengthened support for the second empire

worker support and social reforms 1850s–1860s

• early prosperity reduced social and political tensions

• workers backed regime due to housing credit and pawnshop reforms

• unions and right to strike legalized in the 1860s

foreign policy and nationalism 1850s–1860s

• pursued principle of nationalities through aggressive diplomacy

• fought crimean war and war against austria in 1859 for italian unification

• failed intervention in mexico during u.s. civil war damaged reputation

authoritarian rule and managed elections 1850s–early 1860s

• emperor appointed ministers and dominated political power

• retained assembly and senate with limited authority

• used patronage and pressure to ensure pro-government election victories in 1857 and 1863

liberalization and constitutional change 1860s–1870

• growing liberal opposition weakened authoritarian system

• expanded press freedom and legislative power leading to opposition gains in 1869

• new constitution approved by plebiscite in 1870 shortly before fall from power

Lesson 13.2: How were strong nation-states forged in Italy and Germany?

authoritarian nationalism and state building 1850s–1860s

• napoleon iii provided a conservative model backed by middle and working classes

• europe debated whether nationalism plus authoritarianism could work elsewhere

• italy germany and the u.s. showed war and violence forged strong central states

The Unification of Italy
italy divided after congress of vienna 1815

• peninsula split into many states dominated by great powers

• lombardy and venetia placed under austrian control

• metternich dismissed italy as only a geographical expression

risorgimento: The nineteenth-century struggle for Italian independence and unification

• italian unification inspired widespread nationalist sentiment

• giuseppe mazzini founded young italy calling for republic and suffrage

• emphasized language tradition and liberation from foreign rule

papacy and opposition to unification

• catholicism offered shared identity but resisted nationalism

• pope pius ix opposed unification after 1848 revolutions

• syllabus of errors 1864 condemned liberal and modern ideas

piedmont as leader of italian unification 1850s

• nationalists backed victor emmanuel ii of sardinia piedmont

• state was wealthy industrialized and relatively liberal

• constitution of 1849 blended monarchy with limited parliamentary rule

cavour and limited unification goals

• count cavour served as prime minister from 1852 to 1861

• pursued pragmatic and gradual unification strategy

• initially focused on northern and central italy

modernization and alliance with france

• cavour expanded railroads civil liberties and reduced church power

• reforms increased piedmont’s leadership appeal

• secret alliance with napoleon iii formed in july 1858

war with austria and setback 1859

• cavour provoked austria into war with piedmont

• victories at magenta and solferino weakened austrian control

• france withdrew support and only lombardy was gained

popular revolts and northern unification 1860

• nationalist uprisings toppled rulers in central italy

• cavour traded savoy and nice for french support

• plebiscites united north and central italy under victor emmanuel

garibaldi and limits of unification

• garibaldi emerged as revolutionary nationalist leader in 1860

• kingdom expanded to venice in 1866 and rome in 1870

• italy remained unequal with limited suffrage and regional divisions

The Austro-Prussian War

german political stalemate after 1848

• austria and russia blocked prussian unification attempt in 1850

• rivalry grew between austria and prussia

• both sought dominance of the german confederation

economic rivalry and the zollverein 1834–1853

• austria excluded from german customs union founded in 1834

• by 1853 austria was sole confederation state outside the zollverein

• prussia gained economic and political leverage through trade leadership

prussian constitutional crisis and army reform 1859–1862

• liberal parliament wanted parliamentary control over army

• wilhelm i sought army expansion after italian war of 1859

• parliament rejected military budget in 1862 causing deadlock

rise of bismarck and realpolitik

• otto von bismarck appointed prime minister in 1862

• practiced realpolitik focused on power and pragmatism

• loyal to monarchy and determined to strengthen prussia

• realpolitik: A German term referring to political practice based on a careful calculation of real-world conditions rather than ethical ideals or ideological assumptions, employed by Bismarck and other nineteenth-century politicians

blood and iron speech 1862

• bismarck declared government would rule without parliament

• rejected liberal ideals of 1848 and 1849

• argued major issues decided by force not debate

defying parliament and military buildup 1862–1866

• continued tax collection despite budget refusal

• reorganized and strengthened the prussian army

• liberals kept winning elections but lacked power

schleswig-holstein crisis and war with denmark 1864

• disputed provinces had large ethnic german populations

• denmark attempted tighter control against confederation wishes

• prussia and austria defeated denmark together

preparing conflict with austria

• bismarck aimed to expel austria from german affairs

• secured neutrality of russia france and italy

• used diplomacy promises and past alliances

austro-prussian war and northern confederation 1866

• seven-week war ended with victory at sadowa july 3 1866

• austria removed from german politics without harsh punishment

• north german confederation formed under prussian dominance

Taming the German Parliament

bismarck and conservative nationalism

• believed conservatives must compromise with middle class nationalists

• influenced by napoleon iii and lessons of 1848

• linked prussia’s future to national development of germany

north german confederation constitution 1867

• created federal system with strong prussian dominance

• king of prussia became president and bismarck chancellor

• universal male suffrage existed but real power stayed with king and army

reconciliation with prussian liberals 1866

• proposed indemnity bill approving illegal budgets from 1862 to 1866

• liberals supported government in exchange for national unity

• middle class accepted monarchical authority under bismarck

The Franco-Prussian War and German Unification

franco-prussian war and unification strategy 1870

• bismarck provoked france using spanish succession issue

• south german states allied with prussia against france

• aimed to unite germany through patriotic war

decisive victories and fall of napoleon iii

• prussia defeated french army at sedan september 1 1870

• napoleon iii captured and paris besieged until january 1871

• french republic proclaimed but ultimately surrendered

proclamation of the german empire 1871

• wilhelm i crowned emperor in versailles hall of mirrors

• chancellor bismarck and prussian ministers held real power

• lower house elected by universal male suffrage

harsh peace terms for france

• france paid 5 billion francs indemnity

• lost alsace and part of lorraine to germany

• created lasting hostility between france and germany

rise of german nationalism and conservatism

• patriotic fervor surged after war and unification

• germany became most powerful european state in a decade

• semi-authoritarian nationalism allied nobles and middle class

Lesson 13.3: How did Russian and Ottoman leaders modernize their states and societies?

political crises in russia and the ottoman empire mid-19th century

• empires were vast, multiethnic, and built on absolutist rule

• elites opposed representative government and minority independence

• modernization needed in economy, military, and society to compete with europe

The “Great Reforms” in Russia

russian society and need for reform 1850s

• largely agrarian, 90 percent of population were peasants

• serfs had almost no rights, uprisings common, modernization slow

• protest movements ranged from radical marxists to liberal intellectuals

crimean war 1853–1856

• crimean war: A conflict fought between 1853 and 1856 over Russian desires to expand into Ottoman territory; Russia was defeated by France, Britain, and the Ottomans, underscoring the need for reform in the Russian Empire

• conflict arose from great power rivalry in the middle east

• dispute over protection of christian shrines in jerusalem triggered war

• france and britain allied with ottomans to stop russian expansion

crimean war and military lessons 1853–1856

• highlighted power of modern artillery, massive casualties, and naval engagements

• russia lost ~450,000 soldiers, florence nightingale introduced sanitary nursing

• french-led alliance decisively defeated russia by 1856

impact on european balance of power

• austria refused to support russia, ending old alliances

• great power competition replaced cooperation

• tensions helped pave the way for italian and german unification

military defeat and push for modernization

• exposed russia’s technological and organizational backwardness

• alexander ii pursued railroads, better armaments, and military reform

• defeat emphasized need for social and economic modernization

emancipation of the serfs 1861–1866

• alexander ii freed ~50 million peasants, granting property and business rights

• abolished serfdom on private estates (1861) and state lands (1866)

• peasants could buy land but often remained in debt, mir system controlled villages

limits and consequences of emancipation

• landlords compensated by government, peasants received little support

• most peasants remained on unproductive land in basic homes

• reforms failed to satisfy conservatives or radicals, modernization incomplete

judicial and local reforms under alexander ii

• unified judicial system, independent courts, jury trials, equal criminal rights

• established zemstvos in 1864, elected by townspeople, peasants, nobles, but subordinate to bureaucracy

• partial liberalization: relaxed press censorship, eased some anti-semitic laws, but russification increased

economic modernization and industrial growth 1860s–1890s

• government subsidized railways, including 5,700-mile trans-siberian railway

• railroads linked cities, facilitated grain exports, spurred industrial suburbs and factory workers

• emergence of russian revolutionary movements and spread of marxist thought after 1890

territorial expansion and nationalist policies

• expanded into far eastern siberia, central asia, caucasus, displacing local populations

• resettled peasants from overcrowded western regions to new territories

• suppressed nationalist movements among poles, ukrainians, and baltic peoples, consolidating empire

political backlash and industrial surge under alexander iii and witte

• alexander ii assassinated 1881 by anarchist “people’s will,” alexander iii reversed reforms

• sergei witte (finance minister 1892–1903) expanded railways, established protective tariffs, gold standard

• promoted foreign investment in southern russia, especially steel and coal industries, helping russia industrialize

The Russian Revolution of 1905

russian imperial expansion and russo-japanese war 1904–1905

• russia sought influence in manchuria and northern korea, conflicting with japan

• japan attacked port arthur february 1904, won repeated victories on land and sea

• peace negotiated by president roosevelt september 1905, japan emerged as east asian power

domestic unrest and causes of 1905 revolution

• business and professional classes wanted liberal, representative government

• urban workers organized radical labor movements, peasants still impoverished

• minorities and subject nationalities sought self-rule

bloody sunday january 1905

• peaceful march on winter palace in st. petersburg demanding petition

• troops fired on crowd, killing and wounding hundreds

• massacre sparked widespread indignation and opposition to tsar nicholas ii

russian revolution of 1905: A series of popular revolts and mass strikes that forced the tsarist government to grant moderate liberal reforms, including civil rights and a popularly elected parliament

• duma: The Russian parliament that opened in 1906, elected indirectly by universal male suffrage but controlled after 1907 by the tsar and the conservative classes

• widespread strikes, uprisings, mutinies culminated in general strike october 1905

• tsar issued october manifesto granting civil rights and a popularly elected duma

• manifesto split opposition, middle-class liberals supported reforms, radicals marginalized

fundamental laws and duma 1906

• new constitution established constitutional monarchy, tsar retained army and foreign policy control

• duma elected by universal male suffrage, upper house largely appointive, tsar had absolute veto

• ministers appointed by tsar, not responsible to duma, limiting legislative power

stolypin reforms and government consolidation

• tsar rewrote electoral law to favor conservative propertied classes

• agrarian reforms encouraged enterprising peasants, broke collective village ownership

• reforms in education and banking accompanied by harsh repression, ~3,000 executions (“stolypin’s necktie”)

• by 1914 russia was partially modernized, industrializing, yet repressive and socially divided

Reform and Readjustment in the Ottoman Empire

ottoman empire challenges and muhammad ali

• early 19th century ottoman empire faced territorial losses: serbia (1816), greece (1830), algeria (french conquest), while muhammad ali in egypt expanded power (1805–1848)

• muhammad ali modernized egypt’s agriculture, industry, and military; his son occupied syria and palestine 1831–1840, threatening sultan mahmud ii

• european powers (britain, others) intervened to preserve weak ottoman state rather than allow strong, independent egypt

tanzimat reforms and liberalization

• tanzimat: A set of reforms designed to remake the Ottoman Empire on a western European model

• reform movement began 1839, high point under sultan abdul mejid with imperial rescript of 1856

• aimed for equality before law, modern administration and army, private land ownership, free-trade policies

• reforms helped elite christian and jewish businessmen, but most profits went to foreign investors; state debt increased (55 million franc loan in 1851)

limitations of reforms and rise of abdülhamid ii

• tanzimat failed to stop european economic control or nationalist movements in balkans

• equality before law worsened religious tensions; conservatives opposed reforms, supported sultan abdülhamid ii (r. 1876–1909)

• ottomans lost caucasus to russia, balkans gained independence (romania, serbia, montenegro), autonomous bulgaria

young turks and late reform efforts

• young turks: Fervent patriots who seized power in a 1908 coup in the Ottoman Empire, forcing the conservative sultan to implement reforms

• by 1890s, modernizing reformers united in committee of union and progress (young turks)

• seized power in 1908 coup, forced abdülhamid ii to implement reforms

• efforts modernized administration and secularized state, but balkans nationalism continued; set stage for modern turkey post-wwi

Lesson 13.4: How did the relationship between government and the governed change after 1871?

rise of the nation-state in europe after 1870

• post-1870 decades saw rapid political change across europe

• nation-state became the common political framework despite national differences

• citizens faced new obligations but gained benefits through expanding state institutions and bureaucracies

The Responsive National State

mass politics and popular nationalism

• nation-states fostered mass politics and stronger popular loyalty to the nation

• traditional elites adapted while pragmatic politicians gained influence

• constitutions and expanded male suffrage spread across western europe

political participation and party competition

• voting rights for men extended in britain france germany and elsewhere

• elections focused on lower houses of parliament

• new parties represented workers liberals catholics and conservatives

growth of bureaucratic national states

• large bureaucracies managed populations economies and social programs

• states provided free education and limited welfare and public health

• benefits increased popular loyalty to national governments

limits and costs of nation-state loyalty

• elites reluctantly expanded suffrage and excluded women from politics

• most continental states adopted conscription by the 1870s

• income taxes introduced to fund expanding bureaucracies and armies

militarism imperialism and rising tensions

• elites used militarism and imperialism to distract from domestic conflict

• socialist workers often supported national causes during crises

• unresolved internal tensions contributed to world war i and the russian revolution

The German Empire

reichstag: The popularly elected lower house of government of the new German Empire after

• german empire formed as a federal system of prussia and 24 smaller states

• strong national government dominated by prussia with bismarck as chancellor until 1890

• reichstag was popularly elected and gave parties influence despite limits

bismarck and the national liberals

• bismarck relied on national liberals until 1878 to support unification and economic growth

• liberals backed parliamentary cooperation to legitimize imperial policy

• alliance ended over religious and political conflicts

kulturkampf and catholic resistance

• kulturkampf targeted the catholic church after papal infallibility in 1870

• aimed to place church under state control and reduce catholic loyalty to rome

• had limited success mainly in protestant prussia

shift to protectionism and new alliances

• in 1878 bismarck ended kulturkampf and courted the catholic center party

• high tariffs protected german grain and industry from us canadian and russian imports

• protectionism spread across europe in the 1880s and 1890s

suppression and containment of socialism

• social democratic party founded in the 1870s alarmed elites with marxist goals

• anti-socialist laws of 1878 banned spd organizations and publications

• repression failed and spd influence continued underground

creation of the first modern welfare state

• bismarck introduced social welfare to win worker loyalty

• sickness insurance law passed in 1883 followed by accident and pension programs

• first national social security system funded by workers employers and the state

wilhelm ii and the rise of the spd

• wilhelm ii forced bismarck to resign in 1890 and legalized socialist politics

• aggressive foreign policy used to distract from domestic conflict

• german social democratic party: A German working-class political party founded in the 1870s, the SPD championed Marxism but in practice turned away from Marxist revolution and worked instead in the German parliament for social benefits and workplace reforms.

• spd became largest party in the reichstag by 1912

moderation of german socialism before world war i

• spd shifted from revolutionary marxism to gradual reform

• adopted patriotic tone supporting military and imperial policies

• socialism became a reform movement rather than a revolutionary threat

Republican France and the Third French Republic

collapse of unity after the franco-prussian war

• napoleon iii’s efforts at class reconciliation unraveled after defeat in 1870

• third republic proclaimed after the disaster at sedan

• paris resisted german siege until starvation forced surrender in january 1871

the paris commune and civil conflict

• conservatives won the 1871 elections and agreed to cede alsace and lorraine

• radicals proclaimed the paris commune in march 1871 with revolutionary goals

• adolphe thiers ordered the army to crush the commune killing about 20000

stabilization of the third republic

• monarchists dominated until 1875 but failed to agree on a king

• thiers convinced provinces and middle classes the republic was moderate

• by 1879 republicans controlled both houses securing the regime

education and nation-building

• moderate republicans legalized trade unions and expanded colonial empire

• laws from 1879 to 1886 created free compulsory secular education for boys and girls

• public education replaced catholic schools as a republican nation-building tool

church-state conflict and the dreyfus affair

• dreyfus affair: A divisive case in which Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish captain in the French army, was falsely accused and convicted of treason. The Catholic Church sided with the anti-Semites against Dreyfus; after Dreyfus was declared innocent, the French government severed all ties between the state and the church

• pope leo xiii’s moderate stance eased tensions in the 1890s

• dreyfus affair from 1894 to 1899 divided france over anti-semitism and the army

• between 1901 and 1905 church and state were formally separated weakening catholic schools

Great Britain and Ireland

whig view and expansion of british democracy

• traditional view praised smooth political evolution but later historians see it as incomplete

• franchise expanded from 1832 wealthy middle-class males to near universal male suffrage by 1884

• liberal and conservative parties modernized politics through reform bills of 1867 and 1884

political parties and constitutional monarchy

• whig party became the liberal party in 1859 promoting reform and laissez-faire

• conservatives under benjamin disraeli passed the second reform bill in 1867

• queen victoria’s reign from 1837 to 1901 symbolized stability as monarchy became ceremonial

house of lords versus house of commons

• lords blocked democratic reforms and ruled against labor unions between 1901 and 1910

• vetoed liberal measures including the people’s budget after 1906

• threat to add new peers forced lords to accept commons’ authority

rise of social welfare and limits of reform

• liberal government passed major welfare reforms between 1906 and 1914

• david lloyd george pushed the people’s budget and higher taxes on the wealthy

• reforms included health insurance, pensions, and unemployment aid but excluded women’s suffrage

the irish question and political instability

• irish famine of the 1840s and 1850s fueled nationalist resistance

• irish republican brotherhood formed in 1858 and used violence against british rule

• home rule bills in 1886 and 1893 failed leaving ireland unresolved before world war i

• home rule: The late-nineteenth-century movement to give Ireland a government independent from Great Britain; it was supported by Irish Catholics and resisted by Irish Protestants

The Austro-Hungarian Empire

nationalist tensions before the dual monarchy

• conflicting nationalisms in ireland and the ottoman empire show how severe austria-hungary’s crisis was by the early 1900s

• magyar nationalists declared an independent hungarian republic in 1848

• russian and austrian forces crushed the revolt in 1849 followed by austrian rule and germanization in the 1850s

creation of the austro-hungarian dual monarchy

• austria’s defeat by prussia in 1866 and loss of northern italy weakened the empire

• compromise of 1867 created the dual monarchy and divided the empire in two

• magyars gained near independence while both halves shared a monarch and key ministries

political paralysis and ethnic conflict in austria

• ethnic germans were only one-third of the population and feared losing dominance

• language in local government and elementary education became a major political issue

• from 1900 to 1914 parliament was deadlocked and ministries ruled by decree

magyar dominance and nationalism in hungary

• 1867 restoration of the 1848 constitution empowered the magyar nobility

• only the wealthiest one-fourth of adult males could vote keeping power with the elite

• magyarization angered minorities and nationalism weakened the empire by 1914

Lesson 13.5: What were the costs and benefits of nationalism for ordinary people?

building popular loyalty to nation-states

• by the 1870s european nation-state boundaries were largely established

• leaders sought ways to make ordinary people identify with the state

• shared language institutions and national symbols promoted loyalty

exclusion and marginalization within nation-states

• not all groups were included in political representation

• some minorities were pushed to the margins of national identity

• scapegoating accompanied efforts to build national unity

Making National Citizens

the challenge of creating national loyalty

• italian statesman noted unification required making italians not just italy

• expanded suffrage and welfare raised questions of popular allegiance

• loyalty became central in late nineteenth-century nation-states

diversity and weak national cohesion

• italy and germany unified diverse regions with different languages and customs

• only about 2 percent of italians and 50 percent of french spoke the official language

• rural populations and local identities outweighed national loyalty

state institutions as tools of nation-building

• conscription spread patriotic values after the franco-prussian war

• free compulsory education standardized language and national history

• common currency post offices and measurements reduced regional differences

transportation communication and literacy

• railways and roads reduced isolation and expanded national markets

• literacy and schooling increased access to national newspapers and books

• media spread shared political and historical narratives

intellectuals and nationalist ideology

• scholars like heinrich von treitschke promoted national superiority

• national identity linked to language race religion and folklore

• ernest renan argued identity was based on shared will and imagined past

symbols rituals and everyday nationalism

• flags anthems capitals and national personifications reinforced identity

• new holidays like bastille day in 1880 and sedan day after 1871

• monuments jubilees and public rituals normalized national belonging

The Feminist Movement

women’s legal and social inequality

• middle-class women faced rigid gender roles and separate spheres

• married women lacked legal identity and property rights in england and france

• napoleonic code limited property, divorce, and custody rights for wives

feminist activism and professional opportunities

• feminists campaigned for legal equality, education, employment, and the vote

• unmarried women and widows demanded opportunities for financial independence

• german women’s associations influenced the 1906 civil code reform

victories in property rights and suffrage

• 1882 law in england granted married women full property rights

• militant suffragette campaigns before world war i included public protests and hunger strikes

• british women gained the vote in 1919 after decades of activism

• suffrage movement: A militant movement for women’s right to vote led by middle-class British women, which exemplified broader international campaigns for women’s political rights around 1900. (Ch. 13)

women’s access to higher education

• most european countries barred women from full university enrollment before 1900

• switzerland admitted women in some programs in 1867, france and belgium in 1880

• germany and austria-hungary began limited admissions in the 1890s

socialist women and working-class activism

• marxist-inspired women linked women’s liberation to broader working-class revolution

• focused on practical improvements for working women, especially in germany

• often rejected middle-class feminist reform programs as insufficient

state reforms and suffrage

• gradual changes included more equitable property, family, and workplace laws

• civil rights improved slowly but meaningfully before 1900

• women’s suffrage generally granted only after world war i

Nationalism and Racism

rise of exclusionary nationalism

• after 1870s nationalism became more populist and exclusionary

• pride in one’s own national racial traits often led to denigration of others

• drew on supposed common history, culture, and emerging ideas about race

scientific racism and social darwinism

• intellectuals like arthur de gobineau claimed racial hierarchies were biological

• gobineau’s 1854 On the Inequality of the Human Races praised the white “aryan race”

• social darwinism applied “survival of the fittest” to nations and races

nationalism, racism, and imperial/domestic policy

• justified imperial expansion and domestic persecution of minorities

• multiethnic states enforced assimilation, e.g., russification in russia and germanization in east prussia

• jews were often treated as the ultimate outsiders threatening national purity

Jewish Emancipation and Modern Anti-Semitism

jewish emancipation and integration

• by 1870s, western and central european jews gained legal and civic equality

• 1871 german empire constitution removed restrictions on marriage, occupation, residence, and property

• many jewish families entered the middle class and identified as patriotic citizens, though discrimination persisted

rise of modern anti-semitism

• stock market crash of 1873 fueled renewed anti-jewish sentiment in central and eastern europe

• drew on religious intolerance, ghettos, pogroms, popular nationalism, and pseudo-scientific racial ideas

• “protocols of the elders of zion” (1897) spread false claims of jewish global domination

political exploitation of anti-semitism

• anti-semitic parties used rhetoric to gain popular support, e.g., karl lueger’s christian socialist party in vienna (1890s)

• lueger limited russian jewish immigration and appealed to lower middle class resentment

• influenced figures like adolf hitler

persecution in eastern europe

• eastern european jews, especially in the pale of settlement, faced extreme poverty and limited legal rights

• pogroms from 1881–1884, 1903, and odessa in 1905 killed hundreds and destroyed property

• authorities often ignored or facilitated violence, channeling discontent toward jewish populations

zionism: A movement dedicated to combatting anti-Semitism in Europe by building a Jewish national homeland in Palestine, started by Theodor Herzl

• popular by Jews in Pale; some embraced this, others migrated to western/central europe and US

Lesson 13.6: How and why did revolutionary Marxism evolve in the late nineteenth century?

growth and moderation of socialist political movements in the late nineteenth century

• socialist political parties expanded quickly in the late nineteenth century, rooted in marxist ideology and the goal of international proletarian revolution

• conservative upper classes remained concerned about the radical revolutionary rhetoric of socialist politicians

• marxism was increasingly integrated into mainstream political life despite its revolutionary language

• the consolidation of labor unions and the shift toward marxist revisionism focused on practical, incremental improvements for workers

The Socialist International

rapid expansion of socialist parties after 1871

• socialist parties grew dramatically after 1871, with the strongest success in germany

• otto von bismarck’s anti-socialist laws and state social security programs failed to stop the rise of the german social democratic party spd

• the spd officially espoused revolutionary marxism while pursuing reform through legal parliamentary politics

• by 1912 the spd had millions of working-class supporters and was the largest party in the reichstag

creation and collapse of the first international

• marxist parties sought international unity, leading karl marx to help found the international working men’s association in 1864, known as the first international

• marx gained control of the organization and used its annual meetings to promote socialist revolutionary doctrine

• marx supported the paris commune as a major step toward socialist revolution and endorsed working-class violence

• fear of radicalism and internal divisions, especially among moderate british labor leaders, caused the first international to collapse in 1876

second international and mass socialist mobilization

• after marx’s death in 1883, international proletarian solidarity remained central to marxist goals

• socialist leaders formed the second international in 1889, a federation of national socialist parties that lasted until 1914

• the organization had a permanent executive, met every three years, and coordinated marxist doctrine and action

• may 1 was declared an annual socialist holiday commemorating the 1886 haymarket square labor demonstration, increasing elite fears while attracting many workers

Labor Unions and the Evoking of Working-Class Radicalism

decline of revolutionary socialism in europe

• despite revolutionary language, most socialist parties increasingly favored gradual reform over violent revolution

• as membership expanded, european socialism became militantly moderate and focused on steady improvements for workers

• socialist leaders continued to use radical rhetoric to alarm mainstream politicians

• socialists increasingly worked within existing political systems and alongside labor unions to secure practical reforms

reasons for working-class moderation

• expanded voting rights and tangible social benefits led workers to prioritize elections over revolutionary action

• patriotic education and military service encouraged loyalty to the nation and acceptance of aggressive foreign policy

• workers were socially and politically divided rather than a unified revolutionary class

• these factors reduced support for radical programs despite continued support for socialist parties

rising living standards and urban improvements

• workers’ standards of living rose gradually but significantly after 1850

• urban quality of life improved through better housing, sanitation, and services

• material improvements reduced willingness to engage in violent confrontation

• workers sought further gains but were less inclined toward barricade-style revolutions

labor unions and the turn toward reform

• early labor unions were viewed as subversive and were often illegal during early industrialization

• british unions gained legal recognition in 1824 and 1825, though the right to strike was limited

• skilled-worker organizations known as new model unions focused on collective bargaining and compromise

• union success encouraged wider acceptance across europe by the 1870s and expansion to unskilled workers after 1890

russia as an exception to socialist moderation

• tsarist autocracy resisted democratic reform, suppressed unions, and provided minimal social welfare

• even after the 1905 revolution, the constitution granted limited political rights to workers

• most workers lacked the right to vote under the tsarist system

• radical socialists such as vladimir lenin continued to advocate violent revolution

Marxist Revisionism

germany as a case study of socialist transformation

• germany was the most industrialized and unionized continental country by 1914

• german unions gained basic legal rights only in 1869 and faced harassment until the anti-socialist laws were repealed in 1890

• union membership remained low at about 270,000 in 1895 out of nearly 8 million male industrial workers

• after legal repression ended, membership surged to around 3 million by 1912

shift from revolutionary goals to practical unionism

• german unions increasingly emphasized wages, hours, and working conditions over revolutionary agitation

• collective bargaining, once condemned by socialist intellectuals, was endorsed by the german trade union congress in 1899

• strikes were used to force employers to negotiate when they resisted bargaining

• in 1913 more than ten thousand collective bargaining agreements benefited roughly 1.25 million workers

marxist revisionism: An effort by moderate socialists to update Marxist doctrines to reflect the realities of the late nineteenth century

• many german union leaders adopted revisionist positions in practice if not in name

• marxist revisionism sought to update marx’s doctrines to fit new social and economic realities

• eduard bernstein argued in evolutionary socialism 1899 that key marxist predictions had been disproven

• bernstein promoted gradual reform through legislation, unions, and economic growth rather than immediate revolution

debates within socialism and international reactions

• hard-line marxists in the spd and later the second international denounced revisionism as heresy

• despite opposition, gradualist ideas gained tacit acceptance among many german socialists, especially union leaders

• in france, jean jaurès rejected revisionism formally but remained a gradualist secular humanist

• russian marxists were sharply divided over revolution versus reform before the russian revolution

national variations in socialist movements

• socialist parties developed distinct national characteristics by the early twentieth century

• russian and austro-hungarian socialists were generally the most radical

• the german spd combined revolutionary rhetoric with reformist practice under strong trade-union influence

• britain’s non-marxist labour party emphasized gradual reform, while anarchism dominated radical politics in spain and italy

limits of socialist internationalism

• socialist ideology varied widely despite rhetoric of international solidarity

• national interests outweighed international unity in practice

• the idea of socialist internationalism was more symbolic than real

• in 1914 most socialist parties and workers supported their national governments when war broke out

Chapter 14: Immigration and European Imperialism, 1815-1914

Lesson 14.1: What were the global consequences of European industrialization?

global expansion of the industrial economic system in the nineteenth century

• the industrial revolution created a highly dynamic economic system that spread worldwide during the nineteenth century

• expansion into non-western regions was sometimes peaceful because new industries offered goods and technologies that other societies wanted

• when resistance occurred europeans used superior military power to force access, shaping the global economy so most profits benefited the west and its wealthy classes

The Rise of Global Inequality

industrial revolution created lasting global economic inequality

• industrialization increased the wealth and power of europe and north america, widening the gap between the industrial core and colonized or semi colonized regions in africa asia the middle east and latin america

• uneven global development became institutionalized in the world economy, creating a lopsided world divided into a rich north and a poor south

• this structural inequality shaped global economic relationships throughout the nineteenth century

long term evolution of the global income gap

• in 1750 average living standards were similar across the world, but industrialization later created major gaps in wealth and well being between regions

• income per person stagnated in colonized regions before 1913 while industrializing countries experienced significant economic growth

• after 1945 decolonization allowed former colonies to begin industrializing, yet large disparities remained in food health education life expectancy and overall material conditions

The World Market

commerce and european industrial expansion

• nineteenth century european industrial growth greatly increased international trade

• great britain led in exporting mass produced goods to europe and global markets

• manufacturers sought expanding foreign consumers for booming industrial output

british cotton trade and decline of indian textiles

• in 1820 britain exported half its cotton production, with europe as main buyer and india purchasing little

• after tariffs in europe and the united states, britain targeted non western markets more aggressively

• as a colony india could not protect its industry, leading to collapse of its textile sector and mass unemployment

britain as global trade center under free trade

• britain became the largest importer and trader of agricultural goods raw materials and manufactures

• free trade policies kept british markets open

• open access encouraged mines and plantations in non western regions

railroads and western economic interests

• railroads reduced transport costs and opened new economic opportunities

• european investors funded railways in latin america asia and africa

• lines linked ports to resource rich interiors, serving export of raw materials and import of western goods

steam power and global shipping revolution

• steamships replaced sails in the late nineteenth century and lowered freight rates

• atlantic travel time fell sharply and canals like suez and panama shortened global routes

• improved port facilities made shipping faster and more reliable

expansion of raw material extraction

• improved transport enabled europeans to exploit territories in asia africa and latin america

• exports expanded from spices and sugar to industrial raw materials like rubber jute and cotton

• resource extraction fueled western growth but did not create strong local industry

telegraph and global market coordination

• transoceanic telegraph cables by the 1880s enabled rapid communication between financial centers

• merchants could coordinate shipping and trade across continents

• world commodity prices were transmitted instantly across global markets

rise of european foreign investment

• from about 1840 to world war i europeans invested over 40 billion dollars abroad

• britain france and germany were leading investing nations

• wealthy europeans sent capital overseas seeking interest dividends and profits

neo-Europes: Settler colonies with established populations of Europeans, such as North America, Australia, New Zealand, and Latin America, where Europe found outlets for population growth and its most profitable investment opportunities in the nineteenth century

• about three quarters of european capital went to other european countries or settler colonies called neo europes such as the united states canada australia new zealand latin america and parts of siberia

• these regions resembled europe in climate and had large settler populations, attracting investment in railroads ports and extraction of cheap food and raw materials

• europe found its most profitable and relatively secure investment opportunities in these more developed settler societies

impact of western expansion on indigenous peoples

• investment in settler colonies was often mutually beneficial for european lenders and settlers

• expansion of western economic power was devastating for indigenous peoples, especially native americans and australian aborigines

• disease alcohol weapons and economic disruption destroyed established societies and traditional ways of life

Western Pressures on China

european expansion into old civilizations

• europe’s offshoots in the americas and australia absorbed goods capital and migrants

• europe also penetrated densely populated civilizations to expand trade and profits

• china became a key example of european economic intrusion backed by force

qing control of foreign trade

• china had long exported more to europe than it imported and tightly regulated trade

• under the qing dynasty foreign merchants were confined to guangzhou and restricted to licensed chinese traders

• practices seen as harmful to chinese interests were strictly prohibited

british opium trade and rising demands

• by the 1820s british merchants challenged chinese restrictions and expanded opium smuggling from india

• illegal opium sales created addiction in china and generated huge profits for britain

• british merchants demanded expanded trade rights and pressured their government to intervene

qing crackdown and lin zexu

• the qing government opposed opium because it harmed society and drained silver from china

• in 1839 lin zexu punished chinese dealers and confiscated british opium supplies

• lin withdrew the british to hong kong and sent a letter to queen victoria defending china’s actions

Opium Wars: Two mid-nineteenth-century conflicts between China and Great Britain over the British trade in opium, which were designed to “open” China to European free trade. In defeat, China gave European traders and missionaries increased protection and concessions

• british merchants gained government backing as britain sought free trade and formal diplomatic relations with china

• british forces occupied coastal cities and defeated china in the first opium war

• the 1842 treaty of nanking ceded hong kong granted a large indemnity and opened four cities to foreign trade with low tariffs

second opium war and expanded foreign control

• british dominance increased opium trade and strengthened hong kong as a trading center

• in the second opium war british and french troops occupied beijing and destroyed the emperor’s summer palace

• new unequal treaties expanded foreign privileges forced open more cities and imposed unfavorable trade terms on china

Japan and the United States

japan’s isolation policy

• japan expelled all europeans in the seventeenth century to protect traditional culture

• by 1825 officials were ordered to drive away foreign ships without hesitation

• the country remained closed to western influence for nearly two centuries

american interest and pressure

• u.s. whaling and trade in the pacific conflicted with japan’s isolation

• americans sought to ensure safety of sailors and open ports for trade and profit

• western expansionist confidence made opening japan seem a duty of the united states

commodore perry and japan’s opening

• in 1853 perry used gunboat diplomacy to demand negotiations with the emperor

  • gunboat diplomacy: The use or threat of military force to coerce a government into economic or political agreements

• japan’s officials agreed to a treaty opening two ports and allowing trade

• subsequent treaties expanded western rights and privileges, opening japan to foreign commerce

Western Intervention in Egypt

muhammad ali and state building in egypt

• appointed governor in 1805, ali built a modern army with european officers and reformed bureaucracy, communications, and land use

• established a strong, virtually independent egyptian state ruled hereditarily within the ottoman empire

• modernization followed european models, including military training and administrative reforms

commercial agriculture and peasant impact

• to fund his plans ali promoted commercial agriculture, shifting peasants from subsistence to cash crops like cotton and rice

• large landholdings carved from state lands benefited officials and family members but reduced peasant living standards

• agriculture modernization served european markets more than local needs

ismail and westernization

• ismail (1863–1879) continued european-style modernization, expanding irrigation, cotton exports, and completing the suez canal

• introduced european-educated administrators, modern infrastructure, and western cultural influences in cairo

• arabic replaced turkish as official language and egypt was increasingly integrated into european economic and cultural spheres

european presence and investment in egypt

• by 1864 alexandria hosted over fifty thousand europeans working in military, government, medicine, engineering, trade, and finance

• ismail’s costly modernization projects led to massive debt and foreign oversight by france and britain

• european financial control shifted from influence to effective rule over egypt

nationalist reaction and arabi revolt

• nationalist opposition led by colonel ahmed arabi erupted in 1879 over foreign domination

• 1882 riots in alexandria forced tewfik pasha to flee and prompted british military intervention

• the british suppressed the revolt and established occupation while maintaining the appearance of ottoman authority

british administration and reforms

• britain controlled egypt until 1956, enforcing reforms and ensuring foreign bondholders were paid

• some improvements reached peasants, but egyptians saw british as foreign occupiers

• anticolonial resistance grew during and after world war i

model of european imperial expansion

• british rule in egypt showed a new model based on military force, political domination, and claims of beneficial reform

• this approach influenced european expansion in densely populated regions globally

• industrialization and empire created economic, political, and social changes largely favoring europe

unequal benefits of industrialization

• industrialization and european expansion generated massive profits for europe

• colonies like egypt and china gained little while europe consolidated wealth and power

• one-sided development highlighted global inequalities under imperialism

Lesson 14.2: How was massive migration an integral part of Western expansion?

global mass migration: The mass movement of people from Europe in the nineteenth century; one reason that the West’s impact on the world was so powerful and many-sided

The Pressure of Population
european population growth

• from the early eighteenth to early twentieth century europe’s population more than doubled due to declining death rates and improved public health

• birthrates fell in the nineteenth century, but living standards rose, contributing to population expansion

• population growth occurred across europe including asiatic russia

emigration to neo-europes

• between 1815 and 1932 over 60 million europeans emigrated, mainly to north and south america, australia, new zealand, and siberia

• european population growth outpaced that of indigenous populations, raising europeans’ share of the world population from 24 to 38 percent by world war i

• migration was driven by overpopulation and limited economic opportunities in europe

rural to urban migration

• millions moved from countryside to industrial cities in search of work where industrial development offered jobs

• in slower industrializing regions, population pressures led to overseas emigration

• emigration followed a pattern of young adults leaving after population spikes

three unique things about this kind of emigration

• first, emigration of men and women rapidly increased at the end of the nineteenth century and before world war i

• over 11 million left europe in the first decade of the twentieth century, five times the number in the 1850s

• large-scale emigration became a defining feature of european society

second, different patterns of european emigration by country

• britain and ireland had large emigration from the 1840s due to rural poverty, skilled workers moving, and preference for british migrants in the empire

• german emigration peaked in the 1850s and 1880s but declined as industrialization created jobs at home

• italian emigration increased steadily until 1914 because of slow industrial growth and poor village living conditions

third, global destinations of european emigrants were less than half in the US

• fewer than half of european emigrants went to the united states despite its large overall numbers

• asiatic russia, canada, argentina, brazil, australia, and new zealand also received significant european migration

• immigrants made up a larger share of the population in argentina, brazil, and canada than in the united states

European Emigration

who emigrated from europe and why

• most emigrants were energetic small farmers or skilled artisans, not desperately poor peasants or urban workers, leaving due to limited land and competition from factory goods

• immigrants were typically young, unmarried, and hardworking, benefiting receiving countries economically

• political or social reforms at home reduced emigration, while lack of rights encouraged people to leave

intra-european migration

• many europeans moved to other european countries, such as irish and central european jews to britain, poles to germany, and southern europeans to france

• some returned home after years abroad, especially if they could buy land or faced no persecution

• return migration was common: one in two to argentina, one in three to the united states

italian seasonal migration

• italian peasants, mainly in agriculture, left due to falling living standards and competition from cheap north american wheat

• many became seasonal workers, “swallows,” moving to south america for harvests and returning to italy for spring planting

• frugal workers could save $250–$300 per season despite low wages at home

migration chains and community networks

• emigrants often settled with people from the same village or province, creating rural or urban enclaves abroad

• prominent individuals or early migrants helped others follow, forming “migration chains”

• family and friendship ties eased adaptation and encouraged further emigration

emigration as a pursuit of rights and opportunity

• many landless or frustrated youth left due to lack of political and social rights controlled by privileged elites

• emigration provided a way to improve personal freedom and economic opportunity

• reforms at home, such as voting rights or social security, reduced the need to emigrate

The Immigrant Experience in the United States

arrival and demographics of immigrants

• about half of 60 million european emigrants went to the united states, affecting both europe and america

• between 1890 and 1925, southern and eastern europeans (italians, poles, russian jews) outnumbered earlier northern european migrants

• transatlantic travel for steerage passengers was cramped, cold, and unsanitary despite advertised fares

ellis island inspections

• migrants underwent four- to five-hour health, legal, and financial examinations, including intelligence tests

• sick passengers or those deemed a public burden were quarantined or deported, as were suspected anarchists or bolsheviks

• inspections were intimidating, but only about 2 percent were denied entry

transport to cities

• after processing, new arrivals were ferried to new york city or sent to industrial cities in the northeast and midwest

• migrants often stayed together in ethnic neighborhoods, helping preserve community ties

• settlement patterns facilitated adaptation and access to jobs

employment and labor contributions

• immigrants took low-wage, unskilled jobs, keeping labor costs down and supporting rapid industrialization

• their work was essential to growing industries and infrastructure development

• millions helped meet the labor demands of america’s expanding economy

social transformation

• european migration transformed the united states into a multiethnic society from a previously predominantly british and northern european population

• cultural diversity increased in cities and industrial regions

• immigrants shaped american society socially, economically, and culturally

Asian Emigration

asian emigration and labor

• at least 3 million asians, including chinese, japanese, indians, and filipinos, emigrated before 1920

• most worked as indentured laborers on plantations or in mines in latin america, africa, california, hawaii, and australia

• often used by white estate owners to replace or supplement black labor after the end of the slave trade

chinese labor in cuba and peru

• 130,000 chinese moved to cuba between 1853 and 1873 for low-paid, coercive plantation work

• peru brought in over 100,000 chinese workers for plantations and mines in the nineteenth century

• similar asian labor migrations occurred in other parts of the world

restrictions on asian immigration

• european settlers opposed asians moving beyond fields and towns, prompting restrictive laws

• the u.s. passed the chinese exclusion act in 1882, australia the immigrant restriction act in 1901

• asian immigration was increasingly limited by racial and national discrimination

nativism: Policies and beliefs, often influenced by nationalism, scientific racism, and mass migration, that give preferential treatment to established inhabitants over immigrants

• nationalism and scientific racism encouraged states to monitor borders, passports, and customs

• rules favored native-born inhabitants over immigrants, e.g., french limited italians, germans limited poles, americans limited southern/eastern europeans and asians

• governments controlled citizenship and asylum to restrict undesired migration

racial hierarchy and unequal benefits

• immigration policies gave preference to “acceptable” racial and ethnic groups, mainly europeans

• europeans and their descendants dominated overseas opportunities and earned the highest incomes in australia, canada, and the u.s. by 1913

• asia and africa lagged economically, reflecting the unequal benefits of global migration

Lesson 14.3: How did the New Imperialism change Western colonialism?

new-imperialism: The late-nineteenth-century drive by European countries to create vast political empires abroad

• europe hit peak global expansion 1880–1914 sending migrants money goods and building huge overseas empires

• earlier 1816–1880 europe mostly used economic pressure like in China and Japan forcing trade but not full political control

• after 1880 powers switched to direct rule over territories like old 1500s–1700s empires so people called it new imperialism

global impact of new imperialism

• european powers rushed to grab land and people fast and by early 1900s controlled about 84 percent of the world

• Britain was the biggest empire controlling about one quarter of the worlds land and one third of its population

• focus on africa and asia increased rivalry between european states and caused conflicts with non european powers

The European Presence in Africa Before 1880

prior to 1880, europe only controlled 10% of africa, and slave trade decimated their population

early european settlement and conflict in south africa and algeria

• France started conquering Algeria in 1830 and by 1880 french italian and spanish settlers lived there ruling over arab majority

• Britain took dutch land around cape town during napoleonic wars pushing dutch settlers to leave in the great trek and fight african groups like the Zulu Kingdom and xhosa

• boers or afrikaners declared independence after 1853 and by 1880 british and afrikaner settlers controlled most of south africa taking land from african peoples

• afrikaners: Descendants of the Dutch settlers in the Cape Colony in southern Africa

portuguese loosely held west africa, angola, mozambique; elsewhere, zero rule

The Berlin Conference and the “Scramble for Africa”

scramble for africa

• between 1880 and 1900 powers like Britain France Belgium Germany and Italy aggressively competed for african colonies

• by 1900 almost all of africa was divided up and ruled by europeans in a huge land grab

• only Ethiopia stayed independent after beating italy and Liberia remained free because it was founded by formerly enslaved people from the united states

key moves in the scramble for africa

• Britain occupied Egypt in 1882 showing shift to direct political control not just economic influence

• Leopold II pushed hard for overseas empire and believed industrial tech made global expansion easier

• european powers saw africa as open land to grab which increased imperial competition

leopold ii and french rivalry in the congo

• by 1876 leopold focused on central africa and sent Henry M. Stanley to claim land through trading posts and unfair treaties

• France reacted by sending Pierre de Brazza to stop belgium from taking the whole region

• shows how scramble for africa was driven by rivalry and fear of other european powers gaining too much land

berlin conference: A meeting of European leaders held in 1884 and 1885 in order to lay down some basic rules for imperialist competition in sub-Saharan Africa

• French statesman Jules Ferry and German Otto von Bismarck arranged this

• effective occupation required for recognition; legitimized British control in Egypt and South Africa; French has permission to expand

leopold’s congo abuses

• european leaders claimed to stop slavery but let Leopold II personally control the congo free state supposedly neutral

• belgian agents exploited africans for rubber and ivory using the force publique with extreme violence including torture and killings

• conditions were basically slavery and millions of congolese suffered and died

international outrage and belgian takeover

• missionaries and groups like the congo reform association spread reports and photos of atrocities shocking europe

• activists including Mark Twain and Booker T. Washington pressured leopold to give up control

• in 1908 congo became a belgian colony and the force publique was disbanded but 5–10 million africans had already died

germany enters the scramble for africa

• before 1880 Otto von Bismarck wasn’t interested in colonies but nationalist pressure made him change

• germany set up protectorates in togo, cameroons, southwest and east-central africa

• revolts in german southwest africa (namibia) and german east africa (burundi, rwanda, tanzania) led to military action including massacres of 100,000 herero and nama africans seen as first genocide of 20th century

The British in Africa After 1885

british expansion in southern africa

• by berlin conference britain already had a huge empire and was ready to expand further in africa

• Cecil Rhodes led colonists to bypass the orange free state and transvaal to take more land

• britain set up protectorates over Bechuanaland and Rhodesia named after rhodes

south african war: Conflict in 1899–1902 in which British troops defeated rebellious Afrikaners, ancestors of Dutch colonialists, leading to consolidation of South African territories

• gold and diamond mines in the transvaal fueled tension between Britain and the afrikaners leading to the 1899–1902 boer war

• both sides used black south african soldiers and the british forced africans into labor for the war effort

• british used scorched earth tactics and concentration camps where tens of thousands of africans and boers died sparking outrage back in britain

union of south africa and british control in central africa

• 1902 british won the boer war and in 1910 merged afrikaner territories with cape colony and natal to form the union of south africa under british control

• afrikaners eventually gained political power over british settlers while black africans were denied promised rights and white-minority rule was established

• britain expanded in central africa from cape colony, zanzibar, and egypt, facing resistance like the 1881 mahdi uprising in sudan

battle of omdurman and modern weapons

• general Herbert Kitchener led troops up the nile building a railroad to supply arms against the mahdist army

• 1898 at omdurman british used maxim machine guns to decisively defeat sudanese forces

• about 10,000 sudanese soldiers died while british casualties were very low showing firepower and technology made european armies overwhelmingly lethal

fashoda incident: French colonial troops backed down in this 1898 diplomatic crisis caused by British-French competition over African territory in present-day South Sudan, preventing a European Great Power war over imperialist ambitions

• after the battle of omdurman kitchener’s troops found french forces at Fashoda competing for control of the upper nile

• the clash created a serious diplomatic crisis and risked war between Britain and France

• france, distracted by the dreyfus affair, backed down letting britain take full control of the area

british empire building in africa

• indigenous peoples who resisted, like the mahdists at omdurman or herero and nama in german southwest africa, were crushed by european military power

• europeans competed aggressively for territory but avoided fighting each other directly

• imperial ambitions were pursued with force against africans but war between european powers was considered too risky

Imperialism in Asia

european imperialism in asia

• Netherlands gradually took control of almost all of the malay archipelago including indonesia, sharing some power with britain and germany

• France seized indochina under Jules Ferry in the 1880s

• Russia expanded south into central asia and the caucasus and east into china’s borderlands

us expansion and the philippines

• United States took puerto rico and the philippines from spain in 1898 after the spanish-american war

• filipino patriots resisted when independence was denied, leading to a long and bloody suppression

• the us joined european powers in asian imperialism despite some domestic opposition

Causes of the New Imperialism

reasons for new imperialism

• economic motives: britain and other industrializing powers seized colonies to protect markets and resources as global competition rose and tariffs threatened trade

• national security and military power: colonies provided strategic locations like the suez canal and coaling stations for navies, making even poor territories valuable

• nationalism and social darwinism: thinkers like Heinrich von Treitschke argued colonies proved national strength and that conquering “inferior” peoples was natural and just

technology and imperial expansion

• western technological and medical advances made imperialism possible including the maxim gun, quinine to prevent malaria, and steamships plus telegraphs for rapid military deployment

• these tools let europeans defeat indigenous peoples with overwhelming force and control distant colonies

• the tech gap between west and non-western regions was at its peak before 1914

imperialism and domestic politics

• leaders in germany, britain, and elsewhere used colonies to distract from class struggles and create a sense of national unity

• propaganda framed imperialism as benefiting workers with jobs and cheap raw materials while boosting national prestige

• conservative politicians used empire to justify existing power structures and maintain control

special-interest groups and expansion

• white settlers pushed for more land and protection in colonies

• missionaries and humanitarians promoted religion and anti-slavery efforts in africa

• shipping companies, military officers, and colonial officials supported empire for money, career opportunities, and influence

A “Civilizing Mission”

civilizing mission and moral justifications for empire

• european imperialists claimed they were bringing industrialization, education, christianity, medicine, and higher living standards to colonized africans and asians

• french called it a “civilizing mission” while german missionaries promised to teach natives work and self-discipline under european guidance

• imperial rule was also framed as protecting indigenous peoples from tribal warfare and exploitation, ideas popularized by writers like Rudyard Kipling in “the white man’s burden”

white man’s burden: The idea that Europeans could and should “civilize” nonwhite people and that imperialism would eventually provide nonwhite people with modern achievements and higher standards of living

Gender and Empire

European Critics of Imperialism

Lesson 14.4: How did non-Westerners respond to Western expansion?

Period 4: The Twentieth Century and Beyond, ca. 1914 to the Present

Chapter 16: Opportunity and Crisis in the Interwar Period, 1880–1940

Lesson 16.1: How did intellectual developments reflect the ambiguities of modernity?

cultural and intellectual change, 1880s–1930s

• intense experimentation in arts, philosophy, and science

• postwar challenges and war costs prompted questioning of traditional values

• enlightenment and industrial-era beliefs increasingly abandoned

Modern Philosophy

embrace and critique of enlightenment ideals in early 20th century

• many still valued progress, reason, and scientific rationalism despite WWI trauma

• modernity brought both promise and pessimism, “Janus-faced” nature of industrial society

• rising social reforms and higher living standards encouraged optimism

nietzsche and the critique of rationality

• challenged faith in reason, progress, and conventional morality

• rejected christianity as “slave morality” and declared “God is dead”

• predicted nihilism, urged individuals to create personal meaning and self-liberation

influence of nietzsche on art and existentialism

• little read during life, became influential in early 20th century

• inspired artists, writers, and existentialist philosophy of 1920s

• ideas adapted by subsequent generations for various purposes

bergson and alternative approaches to knowledge

• emphasized intuition and immediate experience over rational analysis

• religious or artistic experiences could convey truth better than science

• part of broader pre-WWI dissatisfaction with Enlightenment certainty

post-WWI philosophical divergence

• english-speaking countries embraced logical positivism

• continental europe turned toward existentialism

• war intensified questioning of established truths and certainties

logical positivism: philosophy that sees meaning in only those beliefs that can be empirically proven and that therefore rejects most of the concerns of traditional philosophy, from the existence of God to the human search for happiness, as meaningless

• knowledge must be based on facts and observation, theology and traditional philosophy meaningless

• wittgenstein argued philosophy is the logical clarification of thoughts and language

• “of what one cannot speak, of that one must keep silent,” reducing philosophical inquiry

existentialism: A philosophy that stresses the meaninglessness of existence and the importance of the individual in searching for moral values in an uncertain world

existentialism and its origins

• arose as response to postwar uncertainty, anxiety, and the search for moral values

• influenced by nietzsche, kierkegaard, and dostoyevsky

• emphasized loneliness, meaninglessness, and confronting human fear

existentialist atheism and human freedom

• no God-given truths; existence precedes essence (sartre)

• life is absurd, humans alone, must define their own essence and meaning

• existential crisis reflects broader modern intellectual crisis

authenticity and ethical responsibility in existentialism

• humans are “condemned to be free” and must act to create meaning

• avoiding responsibility is “bad faith,” living authentically requires engagement

• stressed individual choice, action, and moral accountability

postwar rise and influence of existentialism

• philosophy matured in france during and after WWII

• sartre and camus became influential voices for addressing moral crises

• provided unsettling but powerful approaches to twentieth-century challenges

The Revival of Christianity
revival of christian thought after world war i

• religion had been in decline since enlightenment, modern theologians downplayed miracles and focused on morality

• postwar thinkers revitalized faith, emphasizing human sinfulness, need for grace, and divine mystery

• christian existentialists bridged existentialist themes with religious belief

kierkegaard and the leap of faith

• ordinary people cannot prove god exists, but faith is necessary

• human doubt is resolved by taking a “leap of faith”

• god is objectively unknowable yet majestic

karl barth and protestant existentialism

• humans are flawed, sinful, and reason is insufficient for understanding god

• religious truth revealed only through god’s grace

• faith requires trust, obedience, and acceptance of supernatural revelation

gabriel marcel and catholic existentialism

• catholicism provides hope, honesty, and moral grounding in a broken world

• opposed anti-semitism and supported interfaith engagement

• faith offers personal and social meaning after world wars

broader postwar religious revival

• intellectuals across arts, literature, history, science turned to faith between 1920–1950

• existential religion addressed the horrors of world wars and modern uncertainties

• offered meaning amid despair, exemplified by graham greene’s reflection on heaven and hell

The New Physics

scientific advances and optimism

• scientific revolution shaped modern thinking

• 19th century science seen as reliable and factual

• natural laws believed to explain physical processes and improve life

challenges to classical physics

• atoms not permanent, made of unstable subatomic particles

• curie discovered radium emits particles, atomic weight not constant

• planck introduced quanta, questioned matter-energy distinction and stability of elements

theory of special relativity: Albert Einstein’s theory that time and space are relative to the observer and that only the speed of light remains constant

• time and space are relative to the observer

• speed of light is constant in all frames of reference

• matter and energy are interchangeable, linking the large universe to subatomic particles

advances in physics and nuclear potential

• 1920s called “heroic age of physics” by rutherford

• discovery of subatomic particles, including the neutron, enabled understanding of chain reactions

• foundation for nuclear energy and bombs

uncertainty and observer-dependent reality

• heisenberg’s uncertainty principle: nature is unknowable and unpredictable

• universe lacks absolute objective reality, everything is relative

• physics no longer offered certainty or comfort, paralleling modern philosophical doubts

Freudian Psychology

freud and the unconscious

• human behavior is largely irrational and governed by the unconscious

• unconscious contains instinctual drives and powerful memories unknown to the conscious mind

• analyzed through dreams and hysteria, outlined in the interpretation of dreams

id, ego, and superego

• id, supergo, ego: Freudian terms to describe the three parts of the self and the basis of human behavior, which Freud saw as basically irrational

• id: primitive, amoral, pleasure- and aggression-driven instincts

• superego: conscience, social and parental control, also often irrational

• ego: rational self, mediates between id and superego, maintains balance

psychological health and influence

• strong ego balances id and superego; imbalance leads to neurosis or mental illness

• “talking cure” aimed to resolve unconscious tensions

• Freud’s ideas challenged optimism about human rationality and influenced culture, sexuality, and psychiatry