Module J

Module J: Education

INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC POLICY

Topics

  • Why Public Education?

  • The Governance Structure of Education in the United States

  • Education Quality in the United States

  • Federal Education Policy after Sputnik

  • The Battle over Educational Content

  • Delegation Problems in Public Schools

  • The Push for Early Childhood Education

  • Education Reforms
      - Public Policy Institute of California reading
      - McCluskey reading
      - Hinh reading

  • Higher Education in the United States

  • DEMOCRATIC POLICYMAKING, CAMBRIDGE, 2017

Questions

  • How is education provided and paid for in the U.S.?

  • Why is the public dissatisfied with U.S. education?

  • Why do U.S. students lag students of other wealthy nations in educational attainment?

  • Is a national standard for education scores desirable?

  • Can the states manage education adequately?

  • Are charter, choice, and other reforms a solution to education problems?

  • Who should decide what’s to be taught in schools?

  • Can we provide higher education effectively online?

  • Can we reduce the debts college students accrue?

Why Public Education?

Foundations of Public Education

  • The U.S. was created during the Enlightenment period, embracing principles such as:
      - Republicanism
      - Religious tolerance
      - Scientific method

The Concept of Education as an Equalizer

  • Education is often termed “the great equalizer,” signifying:
      - Strong public support for education
      - The belief that everyone deserves a chance for education

Investment Perspective

  • Education viewed as an investment critical for:
      - Supporting democracy
      - Economic and social progress

  • Financial Implications: Spending on education exceeded $944 billion in 2014.

Value of Public Education

Economic Productivity

  • Education enhances economic productivity by:
      - Providing advantages for individuals irrespective of their background
      - Aiding in bridging the gap between the rich and poor

Critics of Public Education

  • Critics argue that public education is:
      - Over-bureaucratized and unable to adapt to change
      - Ineffective at training students adequately

The Governance Structure of Education in the United States

Overview of Governance

  • Education governance is not explicitly outlined in the U.S. Constitution.

  • Historically state and locally determined, but has seen increased government oversight over time.

  • There are nearly 100,000 elementary schools in the U.S., leading to significant variation in policy and outcomes, affecting:
      - Charter schools
      - High-stakes tests
      - Teacher testing and qualifications

Funding Mechanisms

  • Various types of funding include:
      - Property Taxes
      - State Income Tax (Progressive)
      - Sales Tax (Regressive)
      - National Government Funding (Coercive)

  • Notable disparities exist across states:
      - Wealthier states allocate more funding per student.

Problems with Funding

  • The decline of property taxes leads to decreased funding (millage).

  • Inequality exacerbated by a Supreme Court ruling mandating states redistribute revenue from affluent districts to poorer ones.

  • Public Policy Institute of California’s reading addresses forced-riders (e.g., individuals without children or utilizing private education).

  • National government funding often comes with conditions that compel states to act in ways they might not otherwise choose.

Funding By Source

Fiscal Year 2010 Allocation

  • Distribution:
      - Federal: 43%
      - State: 44%
      - Local: 13%

Education Quality in the United States

Current Issues in Education

  • Education remains a significant concern as it constitutes a large portion of state and local budgets.

  • Many individuals base their living choices on the quality of nearby schools.

Perceptions of Quality

  • General perceptions reflect positivity towards individual schools while also acknowledging a general decline in school performance nationwide.

Judging Quality through Test Scores

  • International Math and Science Survey (years: 1995, 1999, 2003, 2007, & 2011):
      - 4th-grade math: Ranked 11th out of 57 participating nations with a 23% improvement in scores from 1995 to 2011.
      - 8th-grade math: Ranked 8th with 17% score improvement from 1995 to 2011.

Efficiency Concerns

  • The U.S. education system, although performing relatively well, incurs significantly higher spending than other developed nations.
      - Questions of efficiency arise versus equity.
      - Issues of bloated bureaucracy and excessive non-academic spending.

Federal Education Policy after Sputnik

Historical Context

  • Sputnik (1957): The USSR launched a satellite, highlighting U.S. shortcomings in science and technology.

  • Responses include:
      - National Defense Education Act (NDEA) of 1958: Funded STEM education, but resources were primarily allocated to white institutions.

Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA)

  • Initiated under President Lyndon B. Johnson to:
      - Diminish educational disparities between economically disadvantaged students and the broader public.

  • Key components include:
      - Title I: Financial assistance for low-income families.
      - Title II: Resources for school libraries and materials.
      - Title III: Supplementary educational services.
      - Title IV: Research and training support.
      - Title V: Grants to strengthen state education departments.
      - Title VI: General provisions.

  • Title I became pivotal in establishing a federal role in educational resource redistribution for the poor, sparking controversy.

National Education Policies

  • No Child Left Behind (NCLB) (2001): Implemented by President George W. Bush.
      - Provided an additional $13 billion in federal funds for standardized educational oversight.
      - Key principles included:
        - Standards and assessments
        - Accountability measures
        - Adequate yearly progress (AYP) requirements
        - Corrective actions for failing schools
        - Assurance of teacher qualifications.

Critiques of NCLB

  • Critics argue that NCLB:
      - Overemphasizes high-stakes tests, resulting in “teaching to the test.”
      - Alters student and teacher focus away from comprehensive education toward merely achieving testing results.

Race to the Top

  • Launched by President Obama in 2009: A competitive grant program that incentivizes states to improve educational outcomes.

  • Noteworthy aspects:
      - $4.35 billion allocated since 2009.
      - Included state obligations to:
        - Incentivize standards adoption benefiting college and workforce readiness.
        - Develop data systems for measuring educational outcomes.
        - Recruit and retain effective educators.
        - Improve underperforming schools.

Comparisons: NCLB vs. Race to the Top

  • Both administrations aimed to address similar educational issues but adopted different strategies:
      - Bush espoused a top-down funding approach.
      - Obama favored a competitive funding methodology.

The Battle over Educational Content

Educational Content and Local Control

  • The long-standing tradition of local control leads to intrinsic challenges regarding educational content.
      - Scopes Monkey Trial (1925): John T. Scopes prosecuted for teaching evolution.
        - Defense by Clarence Darrow, prosecution by William Jennings Bryan.
        - Scopes convicted, resulting in a $100 fine.
      - Epperson vs. Arkansas (1968): Ruling determined the ban on teaching evolution infringed on the Establishment Clause.
      - Edwards vs. Aguillard (1987): Invalidated the law necessitating the teaching of “creation science” alongside evolution.
      - Dover, PA Case (2005): Controversy involved mandates to teach intelligent design, concluding it lacked scientific merit.

Teacher Pressures and Content Delivery

  • Research (Berkman, Pacheco, and Plutzer, 2008) showed significant influences on teaching:
      - 16% of U.S. high school biology teachers hold creation-oriented teaching beliefs.
      - About 1/6 of teachers express a belief in a “young earth.”
      - 1/8 of teachers teach creationism or intelligent design positively, typically allocating less classroom time to evolution topics compared to non-creation-oriented colleagues due to community norm concerns.

Delegation Problems in Public Schools

Role Multiplicity in Education

  • Public schools serve diverse functions:
      - Surrogate parenting
      - Public safety providers
      - Academic education

  • Average investment of $10,560 per student; however, education quality diminishes likely due to these role diversifications.

Principal-Agent Problems

  • Governments have distinct education preferences and delegate responsibilities to teachers, yet:
      - Teachers hold their own preferences, creating potential misalignment.

  • The challenge lies in aligning teacher priorities with governmental education objectives.

Scenario Illustration

  • Principal: Legislator with policy preference = L

  • Agent: Teacher with preference = B

  • Scenario depicts various outcomes based on legislative statutes affecting teachers' decision-making:
        - If L passes Statute 2, teacher selects R1, yielding specific losses for both parties.
        - Legislative strategies may result in loss minimization through statute manipulation.

Policy Uncertainty

  • Policy uncertainty arises when there is a lack of clarity between education output (policy) and anticipated outcomes, complicating the teaching process.

The Push for Early Childhood Education

Early Education Initiatives

  • Head Start Program: Launched in 1965 by the LBJ administration, targeting preschool provisions for low-income families:
        - Limited evidence directly supporting its effectiveness despite indications of educational spillover.

  • Pre-Kindergarten Expansions: Notable initiatives like Oklahoma's universal pre-kindergarten available since 1998 have demonstrated short-term gains for minority groups but lack long-term benefits.

Education Reforms

Funding and Equality Issues in California

  • Supplemental Reading: Public Policy Institute of California:
        - Highlights historic inequalities across funding districts, leading to reform mandates for more equitable funding.
        - Proposition 13's passage restricted local property tax assessments, resulting in fewer teaching resources and larger class sizes.
        - Indicates that well-intentioned reforms can lead to unforeseen negative outcomes.

School Choice

  • School choice empowers parents/guardians to select educational institutions for their children:
      - It motivates schools to innovate programs addressing specific academic needs.

  • Friedman's School Voucher Theory: Suggests creating a competitive market for education:
      - Critiques include exacerbating inequality and misinformed choices regarding school selection.
      - Studies provide minimal support for the efficacy of voucher systems.

Supplemental Readings on School Choice

  • McCluskey's Argument: The attempt to funnel children into rigid educational molds ignores diversity in learning needs; historical trends pushed towards common schooling have eroded varied educational options.

  • Hinh's Perspective: Argues that K-12 vouchers negatively impact public schools and low-income families, noting that such systems often don’t comply with civil rights mandates and show limited success in expanding opportunities.

Charter Schools

Overview and Accountability

  • Charter schools arise from community, parent, or educator petitions and are subjected to less stringent regulations than traditional public schools:
      - They must demonstrate accountability by achieving agreed-upon outcomes (focus areas like arts or career readiness).

  • Evidence regarding the efficacy of charter schools is inconclusive, with varied results based on geographic context.

Success of ‘No Excuses’ Charter Schools

  • Programs like Knowledge is Power Program (KIPP) exemplify effective charter practices emphasizing:
      - Strong academic focus, work ethic development, and rigorous behavior expectations.

  • Study 1: Lyan, MA Lottery illustrated that applicants winning a KIPP lottery had superior math and reading scores compared to non-winners.

  • Study 2: Harlem, NY Lottery showed that winning applicants from the Harlem Children’s Zone secured increased math scores and decreased absenteeism compared to their peers.

Higher Education in the United States

Overview of Higher Education

  • Consensus exists on the value of post-secondary education, though debates arise on funding models and best practices.

  • Moderate annual costs for college:
      - Public institutions: $22,826
      - Private institutions: $44,750

  • Average debt for recent graduates stands at $26,500 (2013 data).

Price and Debt Concerns

  • Attention has turned towards the rising costs of higher education as of 2015, totaling approximately $1.2 trillion in outstanding student debt in the U.S.

  • Large debt burdens hinder economic growth, directing graduates' funds toward repayment instead of consumption.

Debt Distribution Statistics

  • Percentages of graduates by debt categories:
      - 1-10,000: 17.70%
      - 10,000-25,000: 39.90%
      - 25,000-50,000: 9.00%
      - 50,000-100,000: 29.80%
      - 100,000-150,000: .0.60%
      - 150,000-200,000: 0.90%
      - 200,000+: 2.20%

Analyzing Debt vs. Gains

  • The uptick in college costs correlates with rising student loan defaults:
      - Historical cost of a 4-year public college degree escalated from $7,534 to $17,474, culminating in a 131% increase from 1982-2012.
      - Correspondingly, median weekly earnings for holders of college degrees grew from $393 to $1,071 (172% increase).

Evaluating the Problem of Student Loan Debt

  • Concerns emerge despite higher earnings for graduates, centered on issues like:
      - Graduation rates:
        - Public institutions: 79%
        - Private/non-profit institutions: 80%
        - For-profit institutions: 51.4%
      - Discrepancies between earning expectations and actual post-graduation income.