Top 20 Principles from Psychology for PreK–12 Teaching and Learning — Comprehensive Notes

Introduction

• Document: Top 20 Principles from Psychology for PreK–12 Teaching and Learning
• Sponsored by: Coalition for Psychology in Schools and Education, supported by American Psychological Association (APA)
• Purpose: Translate psychological science into practical implications for K–12 classrooms; build on Learner-Centered Principles (1997); summarize current knowledge and provide classroom applications
• Scope: Identifies 20 core principles, grouped into five domains of psychological functioning; includes supporting literature, classroom relevance, and practical strategies
• Authors and collaborators: Coalition members from across psychology subdisciplines; extensive list of contributing authors, reviewers, and references (APA material)
• Access: Report available online and in print via APA Center for Psychology in Schools and Education; permissions noted (no wholesale reprinting without permission)

Contents overview

• Three major sections of principles:
  1) How do Students Think and Learn? (Principles 1–8)
  2) What Motivates Students? (Principles 9–12)
  3) Why Are Social Context, Interpersonal Relationships, and Emotional Well-Being Important to Student Learning? (Principles 13–15)
  4) How Can the Classroom Best Be Managed? (Principles 16–17)
  5) How to Assess Student Progress? (Principles 18–20)
• Each principle includes: Explanation, Relevance for Teachers, and References

Principles 1–8: How do students think and learn?
Principle 1: Students’ beliefs or perceptions about intelligence and ability affect their cognitive functioning and learning

• Explanation
  • Belief in malleable (growth) vs fixed (entity) intelligence shapes cognition and learning strategies
  • Growth mindset associated with learning goals; fixed mindset associated with performance goals and fear of failure
  • Attributions about failure influence motivation: effort-related attributions ( controllable, unstable ) vs ability-related attributions ( stable, internal)
• Relevance for Teachers
  • Attribute poor performance to controllable factors (e.g., effort, strategy) to foster growth mindset
  • Foster growth-oriented attributions by: praising effort/strategy, linking feedback to process, avoiding praise that links ability to speed on simple tasks
  • Be cautious of feedback and praise that signals fixed ability; avoid signaling that quick success equals high ability on easy tasks
• Practical implications
  • When facing failure, address its cause as controllable; encourage adaptive attributions
  • Use explicit instruction to teach growth mindsets and strategies for problem solving
• References (selected): Aronson et al. (2002); Black et al. (2007); Dweck (2006); Good et al. (2003)

Principle 2: What students already know affects their learning

• Explanation
  • Prior knowledge interacts with new content; learning involves conceptual growth or conceptual change
  • Misconceptions/alternative conceptions common in math and science; learning requires addressing these priors
  • Formative assessment used as a baseline to identify misconceptions prior to instruction
• Relevance for Teachers
  • Baseline assessment to diagnose current knowledge; tailor instruction to shift from misconceptions to correct concepts
  • Instruction for conceptual growth vs conceptual change requires different strategies
• Instructional strategies
  • For growth: meaningful, interactive engagement with new content (reading, summarizing, applying concepts, hands-on activities)
  • For change: cognitive conflict, challenging ideas, presenting data that contradicts misconceptions; active student involvement (predicting solutions, then evaluating accuracy)
• References (selected): Eryilmaz (2002); Holding et al. (2014); Johnson & Sinatra (2014); Mayer (2011); Pashler et al. (2007); Savinainen & Scott (2002)

Principle 3: Students’ cognitive development and learning are not limited by general stages of development

• Explanation
  • Reasoning is not strictly bound by age/grade-stage; children possess early competencies and knowledge bases (schemas)
  • Contextualist and sociocultural views: cognition is influenced by social interaction and cultural context; zone of proximal development (ZPD); cognition can be situated in communities of practice
• Relevance for Teachers
  • Consider domain-relevant knowledge, baseline capabilities, and cultural/contextual familiarity when planning instruction
  • Use baseline assessments to gauge knowledge; tailor entry points not solely by age/grade
• Instructional strategies
  • Build on student knowledge to reach higher reasoning in familiar domains
  • Present material at a moderate distance from current functioning to optimize entry point
  • Use heterogeneous groupings to leverage higher-level thinking and peer interaction
  • Link learning to students’ prior knowledge and real-world contexts
  • Recognize cultural and contextual factors that shape learning environments
• References (selected): Bjorklund (2012); Donaldson (1978); Mayer (2008); Rogoff (2003); Rogoff (2003); Rogoff; Miller (2011); etc.

Principle 4: Learning is based on context, so generalizing learning to new contexts is not spontaneous but needs to be facilitated

• Explanation
  • Learning occurs in context (domains, tasks, social interactions, settings)
  • Transfer/generalization is not automatic; it becomes harder as contexts diverge
  • Transfer quality indicates depth and flexibility of learning
• Relevance for Teachers
  • Facilitate transfer by building on students’ strengths, connecting current knowledge to goals, and presenting multiple contexts
  • Teach deep underlying concepts rather than surface features;
  • Use comparisons across contexts to highlight similarities/differences
• Instructional strategies
  • Teach a topic in multiple contexts; connect to real-world applications (e.g., using division in costs) to promote transfer
  • Organize knowledge around general principles (e.g., in biology vs. physics problem-solving approaches)
  • Encourage learners to relate new learning to what they already know; use authentic tasks
• Examples
  • Arteries: knowledge transfer to design questions about elasticity and material properties
• References (selected): Bransford et al. (2000); Mayer (2008); Saxe (1991); Sousa (2011); Rogoff (2003)

Principle 5: Acquiring long-term knowledge and skill is largely dependent on practice

• Explanation
  • Long-term memory stores knowledge; encoding from working memory to long-term memory requires practice
  • Deliberate practice (not rote repetition) drives durable learning and expertise; practice improves retrieval, automaticity, transfer, and motivation
  • Benefits of practice: (a) durability/retrievability, (b) automatic application, (c) frees cognitive resources, (d) transfer to new problems, (e) increased motivation
• Relevance for Teachers
  • Structure practice with purpose; avoid mere drilling; provide meaningful, challenging tasks
  • Use feedback to reinforce progress and belief in ability; design practice to be progressively challenging
• Implementation strategies
  • Practice testing with spaced intervals (distributive practice) and interleaved practice
  • Use a schedule that repeats opportunities to practice (interleaving) and provides varied approaches to similar tasks
  • Align practice with students’ prior knowledge
• References (selected): Campitelli & Gobet (2011); Dunlosky et al. (2013); Roediger (2013); Rosenshine & Meister (1992); Simkins & Maier (2008); van Merrienboer et al. (2003); etc.

Principle 6: Clear, explanatory, and timely feedback to students is important for learning

• Explanation
  • Feedback that is specific, explanatory, and timely enhances learning; generic praise is less effective
  • Clear goals improve feedback effectiveness; timely feedback helps keep learning on track
• Relevance for Teachers
  • Tie feedback to explicit learning goals; indicate current understanding level and next steps
  • Provide corrective guidance that helps students self-correct and improve (e.g., model answers, guided prompts)
  • Timeliness matters: quicker feedback after assessment supports learning
  • Tone matters: constructive, non-punitive feedback motivates and guides; avoid negativity or irrelevance
• Practical strategies
  • Example feedback formats: “Your topic sentences summarize main ideas well; next, integrate how all ideas connect”
  • Use immediate corrective feedback on quizzes; provide hints to guide discovery of correct answers
  • Use both descriptive and forward-looking feedback to shape future performance
• References (selected): Brookhart (2008); Ericsson et al. (1993); Gobet & Campitelli (2007); Leahy et al. (2005); Minstrell (2001)

Principle 7: Students’ self-regulation assists learning, and self-regulatory skills can be taught

• Explanation
  • Self-regulation includes attention, organization, self-control, planning, memory strategies; these can be taught, not just maturational
• Relevance for Teachers
  • Teach and scaffold self-regulatory skills; organize classroom structure to support regulation
• Implementation strategies
  • Clearly state goals; break tasks into manageable steps with criteria for success
  • Provide opportunities and time for practice; incorporate processing activities (summarizing, questioning, rehearsing)
  • Help students plan by evaluating short- and long-term consequences of decisions
  • Use cues to highlight important upcoming information
  • Structure class time with focused and interactive segments to optimize self-regulation
• References (selected): Diamond et al. (2007); Leahy et al. (2005); Minstrell (2001); Wang et al. (various) etc.

Principle 8: Student creativity can be fostered

• Explanation
  • Creativity = generation of new and useful ideas; crucial in 21st-century economy; enhances engagement and real-world relevance
  • Creativity can be developed; not a fixed trait
• Relevance for Teachers
  • Allow multiple approaches; value diverse perspectives; avoid labeling creative students as disruptive
• Practical strategies
  • Use prompts that encourage invention and prediction (create, invent, discover, imagine if, etc.)
  • Employ questioning, challenging assumptions, making unusual connections, envisioning alternatives
  • Encourage group problems solving and presenting ideas to diverse audiences; model creativity
  • Demonstrate creative processes and when to apply or forego creativity depending on context
• References (selected): Beghetto (2013); Kaufman & Beghetto (2013); Plucker et al. (2004); Runco & Pritzker (2011); Sternberg et al. (2004)

Principle 9: Students tend to enjoy learning and to do better when they are more intrinsically rather than extrinsically motivated to achieve

• Explanation
  • Intrinsic motivation: task engagement for its own sake, associated with perceived competence and autonomy
  • Extrinsic motivation: engagement driven by external rewards/punishments
  • Both types can co-exist; intrinsic motivation linked to deeper learning, persistence, reduced anxiety
  • External rewards can be effective when used appropriately; autonomy supports intrinsic motivation
• Relevance for Teachers
  • Support autonomy, competence, and relatedness; emphasize internal rewards of mastery rather than external praise only
  • Use informational feedback (not controlling) to guide task engagement
  • Provide choices and opportunities for students to select tasks; balance challenge
  • Recognize that some tasks require external motivation (practice, drills) but frame them to promote internal goals
• Implementation strategies
  • Use task variety and novelty to sustain interest; connect learning to real-world relevance
  • Promote gradual development of competence through supported practice; avoid excessive focus on grades as sole payoff
• References (selected): Anderman & Anderman (2014); Deci & Ryan (1985); Brophy et al. (2008); Thorkildsen et al. (2008); etc.

Principle 10: Students persist in the face of challenging tasks and process information more deeply when they adopt mastery goals rather than performance goals

• Explanation
  • Mastery goals focus on learning and improving competence; performance goals focus on demonstrating ability or avoiding negative judgments
  • Mastery goals generally support persistence and deeper processing; excessive performance focus can hinder risk-taking
• Relevance for Teachers
  • Emphasize effort, progress, and improvement over past performance; private evaluations minimize social comparison
  • Provide specific, process-focused praise; avoid praising only for “being smart”
  • Allow flexible pacing; enable students to work toward individual mastery rather than comparing with peers
  • Use cooperative structures that emphasize team mastery over competition
• Classroom strategies
  • Create environments that treat mistakes as learning opportunities
  • Individualize pacing; let students contribute to timelines and monitor progress
  • Use mixed-ability groups to promote collaboration and higher-level thinking; allow high achievers to mentor peers
  • Use situations where competition aligns with a shared mastery goal (e.g., team science projects)
• References (selected): Ames (1992); Anderman & Anderman (2009); Deci & Ryan (2002); Graham (1990); Meece et al. (2006); Schunk & Zimmerman (2006); etc.

Principle 11: Teachers’ expectations about their students affect students’ opportunities to learn, their motivation, and their learning outcomes

• Explanation
  • Teacher expectations guide instructional decisions, grouping, feedback, and opportunities; inaccurate expectations can become self-fulfilling
  • Self-fulfilling prophecies more likely for stigmatized groups; high expectations generally lead to more supportive environments
• Relevance for Teachers
  • Communicate high expectations to all students; avoid letting stereotypes guide judgments
  • Regularly check the reliability/accuracy of information informing expectations; treat students as capable of growth
  • Reflect on potential differential treatment; ensure equal opportunities and feedback for all students
• Practical checks
  • Monitor seating, participation, and feedback patterns to avoid bias; ensure all students receive thorough and detailed feedback
• References (selected): Jussim et al. (1996, 2005); Jasusim et al. (2009); etc.

Principle 12: Setting goals that are short term (proximal), specific, and moderately challenging enhances motivation more than long term (distal), general, and overly challenging

• Explanation
  • Three properties of goals boost motivation: proximal, specific, moderately challenging
  • Self-efficacy grows as students monitor progress toward goals
• Relevance for Teachers
  • Use written goal-tracking; privately set and monitor progress; provide subgoals leading to larger goals
  • Balance difficulty: avoid under-challenging or overly hard tasks; encourage intermediate risk-taking
  • Consider class-wide and individual goal structures;合同/contracts can clarify subgoals
• Classroom implications
  • Create cooperative or competitive contexts that align with proximal goal structures when appropriate
• References (selected): Anderman & Wolters (2006); Locke & Latham (2002); Martin (2013); Schunk (1989); Schunk & Zimmerman (2006)

Principles 13–15: Why are social context, interpersonal relationships, and emotional well-being important to student learning?
Principle 13: Learning is situated within multiple social contexts

• Explanation
  • Learners are embedded in families, peer groups, classrooms, schools, neighborhoods, communities, and broader social systems; culture shapes language, beliefs, values, and norms
• Relevance for Teachers
  • Understand cultural backgrounds and social contexts to facilitate effective teaching–learning interactions
  • Connect curriculum to students’ cultural backgrounds; involve local history, local health issues, etc.
  • Build classroom culture that provides safe environment and shared meanings; engage families and communities
  • Engage with local communities to connect learning to everyday life
• References (selected): Lee & Stewart (2013); NASP Blueprint; Thapa et al. (2012); Trickett & Rowe (2012); Ysseldyke et al. (2012)

Principle 14: Interpersonal relationships and communication are critical to both the teaching–learning process and the social-emotional development of students

• Explanation
  • Classroom learning is inherently interpersonal, requiring effective teacher–student and peer relationships; communication quality affects social-emotional development
• Relevance for Teachers
  • Create a safe, respectful climate; establish clear vocabulary, values, and norms
  • Implement explicit behavioral expectations and opportunities to practice social skills (cooperation, perspective taking, feedback, conflict resolution)
  • Prevent and address bullying; promote positive climate; teach and model effective communication
• Practical strategies
  • Teach and model communication basics (elaboration, asking questions, listening, reading nonverbal cues)
  • Provide structured opportunities for practice and feedback in both academic and social contexts
• References (selected): CDC (2009); Durlak et al. (2011); Pianta & Stuhlman (2004); Rimm-Kaufman et al. (2015); etc.

Principle 15: Emotional well-being influences educational performance, learning, and development

• Explanation
  • Emotional health affects participation, relationships, and learning; includes self-concept, self-efficacy, locus of control, general well-being, coping skills, and emotion understanding
• Relevance for Teachers
  • Create a classroom climate that supports acceptance, safety, and positive social relationships
  • Support emotional development through vocabulary for emotions, modeling, emotion regulation strategies, empathy, and monitoring expectations
• Practical strategies
  • Use emotion labeling, model appropriate emotional expression
  • Teach regulation strategies (e.g., stop-and-think, deep breathing); promote empathy
  • Ensure consistent, fair expectations for all students; address issues of acceptance and belonging
• References (selected): CASEL (2012); Hagelskamp et al. (2013); Jain et al. (2012); Jones et al. (2011); Seligman et al. (2009)

Principles 16–17: How can the classroom best be managed?
Principle 16: Expectations for classroom conduct and social interaction are learned and can be taught using proven principles of behavior and effective classroom instruction

• Explanation
  • Behavior and classroom conduct are teachable; effective management includes early establishment of a social curriculum with clear behavioral rules
  • Behavior can be shaped using established behavioral principles; functional behavior assessment (FBA) helps identify replacement behaviors
• Relevance for Teachers
  • Begin the year by teaching and reinforcing behavioral expectations; proactive discipline is preferable to reactive responses
  • Use the same instructional design principles for behavioral training as for academic lessons (clear goals, practice, feedback, reinforcement, correction)
  • PBIS can be implemented schoolwide to reinforce positive behavior
• Practical strategies
  • Recognize and address disruptive behavior with planned, proactive steps; use FBA to identify antecedents and functions
• References (selected): American Psychological Association (Zero Tolerance Task Force, 2008); Evertson & Emmer (2009); Skiba & Peterson (2003); Slavin (2014); Sprick (2006); Sugai & Simonsen (2015)

Principle 17: Effective classroom management is based on (a) setting and communicating high expectations, (b) consistently nurturing positive relationships, and (c) providing a high level of student support

• Explanation
  • Structure and support create a productive learning climate; emphasis on positive relationships and high expectations
• Relevance for Teachers
  • Provide a safe, well-organized environment; predictable schedules; clearly explained and enforced rules
  • Balance high expectations with nurturing relationships to foster trust and motivation
  • Maintain a favorable ratio of positive to negative feedback; show respect for students and their cultures
• School-level applications
  • Restorative Practices; social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies; culturally responsive classroom management
• References (selected): Evertson & Emmer (2009); Skiba & Peterson (2003); Weinstein, Tomlinson-Clarke, & Curran (2004); RESTORATIVE PRACTICES sources; CASEL SEL resources

Principle 18: Formative and summative assessments are both important and useful but require different approaches and interpretations

• Explanation
  • Formative assessments guide instruction; summative assessments judge overall learning progress or program effectiveness
  • Different data collection methods reflect different purposes (ongoing feedback vs final accountability)
• Relevance for Teachers
  • Use formative assessments to monitor progress, adjust instruction, and provide ongoing feedback; use summative assessments to judge attainment against standards
  • Include learning progressions, discussions, collaboration, self- and peer assessment, descriptive feedback in formative work
  • Align assessment approaches with learning goals; ensure fair interpretation
• Practical guidance
  • Use multiple formats and timely feedback; minimize high-stakes decisions based on a single measure; ensure alignment with goals
• References (selected): Brookhart (2011); Black et al. (2003); CCSSO (2008); Heritage (2007); Wylie & Lyon (2012)

Principle 19: Students’ skills, knowledge, and abilities are best measured with assessment processes grounded in psychological science with well-defined standards for quality and fairness

• Explanation
  • Assessments should be reliable, valid, and fair; adhere to Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (AERA, APA, NCME, 2014)
  • Validity questions: what is measured? what is not measured? what are the consequences? evidence?
  • Fairness ensures tests measure intended constructs across diverse populations; test length influences reliability
• Relevance for Teachers
  • Align assessments with learning goals; use multiple items and question types; conduct item analysis to identify overly easy/hard questions
  • Be mindful of different uses of assessments (high-stakes vs classroom) and ensure fairness across diverse groups
  • Consider validity and reliability when interpreting results; use multiple measures for high-stakes decisions
• Practical guidance
  • Monitor outcomes for biases; ensure tests measure intended constructs; adapt based on evidence
• References (selected): AERA, APA, NCME (2014) Standards; Brookhart (2011); Moss (2003); Smith (2003); Wiliam (2014)

Principle 20: Making sense of assessment data depends on clear, appropriate, and fair interpretation

• Explanation
  • Meaning of assessment outcomes depends on interpretation; use results for intended purposes only; misinterpretation can lead to wrong conclusions
• Relevance for Teachers
  • Consider the assessment purpose, comparison methods, cut-points/standards, and the alignment with curriculum goals
  • Use multiple sources of evidence to inform decisions; acknowledge limitations of tests and reliability concerns
  • Communicate caveats and explanations to students and families; use data to inform instruction
• Practical guidance
  • Ask: What was measured? Are comparisons relative or based on acceptable responses? What standards apply? What are potential unintended consequences?
• References (selected): AERA, APA, NCME (2014) Standards; Brookhart (2011); Moss (2003); Smith (2003); Wiliam (2014)

Additional notes on structure and methodology

• Methodology overview (pages 4–5 in the source):
  • Kernels identified by coalition members (initial ~45 kernels) were clustered into domains of classroom application
  • Validation against national documents (InTASC, PRAXIS, NASP Blueprint, etc.) showed broad support for all principles
  • A modified Delphi process (rating 1–3) yielded a final 20 principles, categorized into five areas of psychological functioning
  • The five domains organize the 20 principles as described above
• Foundational ideas
  • Principles draw on cognitive, developmental, social, and educational psychology
  • Emphasize evidence-based practices and practical implications for K–12 teaching
• References and further reading
  • Learner-Centered Psychological Principles (1997)
  • Embry & Biglan (2008) on kernels; Dunlosky et al. (2013) on learning techniques; Roediger (2013) on applying cognitive psychology to education; Zinkiewicz et al. (2003); and many others cited within each principle

Closing thoughts

• The Top 20 Principles provide a framework for translating psychological science into actionable classroom practices
• They emphasize the interconnectedness of cognition, motivation, social context, emotion, classroom management, and assessment
• Effective teaching requires balancing structure with supportive relationships, fostering growth-oriented mindsets, building self-regulation and creativity, and using well-designed assessments to inform instruction
• Ethical and practical implications: avoid biases in expectations, support equitable opportunities, and ensure fairness and validity in assessments across diverse student populations