Introduction to Social Psychology: The Social Self-Chapter 3

PSYC 201: Introduction to Social Psychology

The Social Self

The Nature of the Social Self

  • Self: A person's particular nature or qualities that make them unique and distinguishable from others.

Key Questions for Pair Work

  • What is the difference between a theory and a hypothesis?

  • What is a dependent variable?

  • What is an independent variable?

  • How is experimental research different from other types of research?

  • What is the relationship between internal and external validity?

  • Why is random assignment important?

Understanding Research Types

  • Types of Research:

    • Observational Research: Looking at behavior without manipulating the environment.

    • Experimental Research: Manipulating variables and observing outcomes.

    • Archival Research: Analyzing existing data.

    • Correlational Research: Exploring relationships between variables without experimental manipulation.

Key Concepts in Research

  • Validity Relationships:

    • Internal Validity: Degree to which the results of an experiment can be attributed to manipulations made by the researcher.

    • External Validity: Degree to which findings of a study can be generalized or applied to settings outside the study.

  • Random Assignment: Crucial for establishing causal relationships and ensuring that all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to any condition in an experiment.

Core Psychological Constructs

  • Measurement Validity: Degree to which a test measures what it purports to measure.

  • Reliability: Consistency of a measure over time.

  • Fundamental Attribution Error: The tendency to overemphasize personality traits and underestimate situational influences when evaluating others’ behaviors.

Processing Styles

  • Controlled Processing: Deliberate and conscious thought processes often engaged in decision-making.

  • Automatic Processing: Rapid and intuitive reactions, often emotional in nature.

Self-Concept and Identity

The Social Nature of Self

  • The self is constructed, maintained, and negotiated in social contexts; it is dynamic and influenced by interactions with others.

  • Three Primary Components of the Self:

    • Individual Self: Personal beliefs about unique traits and characteristics.

    • Collective Self: Identities derived from groups the person identifies with.

    • Relational Self: Beliefs about oneself in relation to specific relationships.

Schemas and Stereotypes

  • Schema: An organized body of knowledge that helps an individual interpret and predict experiences in various contexts.

  • Types of Schemas: Situational, trait-based, object-based, and stereotypes.

  • Self-Schema: Cognitive structure reflecting beliefs and feelings about oneself in various situations.

Self-Esteem

Understanding Self-Esteem

  • Self-Esteem: The overall positive or negative evaluation of oneself, often assessed through self-report measures.

  • Trait vs. State Self-Esteem:

    • Trait Self-Esteem: Enduring level of self-regard;

    • State Self-Esteem: Fluctuating sense of self-worth based on circumstances.

Contingencies of Self-Worth

  • Contingencies of Self-Worth: These are the success and failure in various domains that influence self-esteem levels (Crocker & Wolfe, 2001).

    • Higher self-esteem is observed on successful days and lower self-esteem is noted on days of failure, particularly relating to academic performance.

Sociometer Hypothesis

  • Sociometer Hypothesis: Self-esteem serves as an internal measure of social acceptance; high self-esteem signals positive social interactions, while low self-esteem indicates social struggles (Leary et al., 1995).

Cultural Influences on Self-Perception

Independent vs. Interdependent Views of Self

  • Cultures:

    • Independent Cultures (e.g., North America, Northwestern Europe): Emphasize personal attributes and individual traits.

    • Interdependent Cultures (e.g., Asia, Africa, South America): Highlight connections and roles in the context of social relationships.

Gender Differences in Self-Concept

  • Men often have more independent self-views, while women tend to view themselves in relational contexts. Socialization patterns affect these self-descriptions and can differ across cultures.

Social Comparison Theory

Social Comparison Process

  • Theory: Individuals assess their opinions, abilities, and attributes by comparing themselves with others (Festinger, 1954).

    • Occurs in the absence of objective criteria or in domains of uncertainty.

    • Motivated Comparisons: Downward (comparing with worse-off others for self-esteem boost) and upward (comparing with better-off to motivate improvement).

Self-Enhancement Tactics

  • Self-Enhancement: The tendency to maintain an overall positive self-view.

    • Strategies include:

    1. Self-Serving Construals

    2. Self-Affirmation

    3. Self-Evaluation Maintenance Model (SEM)

Self-Regulation

Mechanisms of Self-Regulation

  • Self-Regulation: The ability to manage thoughts, feelings, and actions toward achieving personal goals. This includes resisting immediate rewards for long-term benefits.

Self-Discrepancy Theory

  • Theory: Defines how personal beliefs about the actual self, ideal self, and ought self influence emotional states and behaviors (Higgins, 1997).

    • Discrepancies can lead to feelings of disappointment or anxiety depending on which self (actual, ideal, ought) is unachieved.

Implementation Intentions and Self-Presentation

Importance of Implementation Intentions

  • Implementation Intentions: Specific strategies that help individuals execute goals by forming conditional plans (if-then scenarios).

Self-Presentation

  • Self-Presentation: Managing the impression one makes on others, aligning public self-image with personal aspirations. Important aspects include:

    • Public Image (Face): How individuals wish to be perceived.

    • Impression Management: Ensuring behaviors and attributes align with societal expectations.