The End of Empires: Case Studies of Decolonization

The End of Empires: Case Studies

India: A Nonviolent Colonial Revolution

• Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi

• An Indian lawyer and social activist who spearheaded India's anti-colonial campaign against the British Empire.

• Since $1914$, he has been known as Mahatma, meaning "great soul" in Sanskrit.

• Educated in England, he moved to South Africa in $1893$ to practice law.

• After experiencing racial prejudice firsthand in South Africa, Gandhi became politically involved, fighting for the civil rights of the small Indian minority population.

• He developed satyagraha (devotion to truth) as a commitment to nonviolent resistance.

• Gandhi returned to India in $1915$ to aid the ongoing work of the Indian nationalist movement.

• Placed in charge of the Indian National Congress in $1920$, leading numerous nonviolent movements advocating for noncooperation.

• Resigned from Congress in $1934$ but remained a highly active figure in India's anti-colonial campaign, famously calling for the British Empire to "Quit India" in $1942$.

• India achieved independence from the British Empire in $1947$.

• Tensions grew between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League in the years leading to independence.

• Gandhi disagreed with the proposed geographical divisions of the Indian Subcontinent along religious lines (Hindu versus Muslim) and was deeply troubled by the partition of India in $1947$.

• In $1948$, Gandhi was assassinated by Hindu nationalists and was memorialized in the newly independent Indian nation-state.

• His philosophy and actions inspired civil rights movements worldwide.

• The Partition of India

• Leading up to India's independence, tensions existed between:

  • The Indian National Congress, the nationalist party founded in $1885$.

  • The Muslim League, founded in $1906$.

• Lord Louis Mountbatten, India's last viceroy, was tasked with negotiating the terms of Britain's exit from India.

• Unable to reach a compromise between Congress and the League, Mountbatten announced a plan to partition British India on $03/06/1947$.

• Nationalist leaders met in June to determine the geographical borders of two distinct nation-states along religious lines: India and Pakistan.

• The border demarcation was known as the Radcliffe Line.

• Pakistan was split into West Pakistan and East Pakistan (which is modern-day Bangladesh).

• On $08/14/1947$, the sovereign state of Pakistan was founded with Muhammad Ali Jinnah as its first governor-general.

• On $08/15/1947$, the sovereign state of India was founded with Jawaharlal Nehru as its first prime minister.

• Widespread violence and massive population resettlement (millions displaced) occurred following the partition.

• The legacy of this violence and relocation continues to influence geopolitical relations between the two nations to this day.

Ethiopia: Violent Anti-Colonial Revolutions

• British and Ethiopian military forces reclaimed control over Ethiopia in $1941$, ending Italy's six-year occupation of the country.

• Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia returned from exile at the end of World War II.

• The British military administration of Eritrea, which had been an Italian colony since $1869$, ended in $1952$.

• In $1952$, Eritrea and Ethiopia entered into a formal federation that preserved Eritrean autonomy and allowed both countries (sharing ethnic, linguistic, religious, and cultural ties) to benefit from commercial relations.

• In $1958$, Eritrean rebels began an armed insurrection.

• Emperor Haile Selassie dissolved the federation unilaterally, annexing Eritrea in $1962$.

• Eritrean resistance to Ethiopian rule continued after the $1974$ communist revolution that deposed the emperor, including violent clashes throughout the $1970$s and $1980$s.

• The end of Soviet military aid to Ethiopia in the late $1980$s led to the fall of the regime in Addis Ababa in $1991$ and the beginning of Eritrean independence.

• This process involved two distinct stages:

1. Ethiopia (along with Eritrea) gaining independence from Italy.

2. A long and violent process of Eritrea gaining its independence from Ethiopia.

• ### Vietnam: Violent Anti-Colonial Revolutions in Asia

  • The First Indochina War

  • Indochinese or Vietnamese resistance to French rule predated World War II.

  • Major changes from WWII and Japan's defeat resulted in considerable instability and increased pressure on France to withdraw.

  • The nationalist leader, Ho Chi Minh, aimed to overthrow the French and install a communist government.

  • Though the French had effectively suppressed this movement during the $1930$s, the organization (Viet Minh) had survived.

  • In $1941$, the Japanese invaded and occupied the French colony.

  • When Japan surrendered in $1945$, the Viet Minh seized the opportunity to lead an uprising.

  • On $09/02/1945$, Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnam independent, appealing to the U.S. for support.

  • This support did not materialize, and France subsequently attempted to regain control.

  • When China attempted to invade, Ho Chi Minh was forced to strike a deal with France to evict the Japanese and prevent further escalation.