RS Eduqas Revision Guide: Philosophical and Ethical Issues

Key Concepts and Glossary of Terms for GCSE Religious Studies

Adultery: Voluntary sexual intercourse between a married person and a person who is not their spouse.
Divorce: To legally end a marriage.
Cohabitation: To live together in a sexual relationship without being married or in a civil partnership.
Commitment: A sense of dedication or obligation to someone or something else.
Contraception: Methods used to prevent a woman becoming pregnant during or following sexual intercourse.
Gender equality: People of all genders enjoying the same rights and opportunities in all aspects of their lives.
Responsibilities: Actions/duties you are expected to carry out.
Roles: Position, status or function of a person in society, as well as the characteristics and social behaviour expected of them.
Afterlife: Belief in life after death; the belief that existence continues after physical death.
Environmental sustainability: Ensuring that natural resources are used but protected so that all people, animals and plant life can live well now and in the future.
Euthanasia: The act of killing or permitting the death of a person who is suffering from a serious illness.
Evolution: The process by which different creatures are believed to have developed from earlier less complex forms during the history of the earth.
Abortion: The ending of a pregnancy so that it does not result in the birth of a child.
Quality of life: The extent to which life is meaningful and pleasurable/enjoyable.
Sanctity of life: The belief that life is precious, or sacred and god-given. For many religious believers, only God has the right to take life.
The soul: The spiritual aspect of a being, which some religions believe connects a person to God. It is also seen as non-physical and as living on after physical death in an afterlife.
Good: That which is considered morally right, beneficial and to our advantage.
Evil: That which is considered extremely immoral, wicked and wrong.
Forgiveness: To pardon a person for wrongdoing; it is also giving up resentment and the desire to seek revenge against someone who has wronged you.
Free will: The ability to make choices voluntarily and independently. The belief that nothing is predetermined.
Justice: Means fairness; where everyone has equal provisions and opportunity.
Morality: Standards determining which actions are right or wrong.
Punishment: A penalty given to someone for a crime they have committed or something they have done wrong.
Sin: A deliberate immoral action which breaks a religious or moral law.
Suffering: Pain or distress caused by injury, illness or loss. Suffering can be physical, emotional, psychological or spiritual.
Censorship: The practice of suppressing and limiting access to materials considered obscene, offensive or a threat to security. People may also be restricted in their speech by censorship laws.
Discrimination: Act of treating groups of people or individuals differently, based on prejudice.
Extremism: Believing in or supporting ideas that are very far from what most people consider correct or reasonable.
Human rights: The basic entitlements of all human beings, afforded to them simply because they are human. An example is the right to life or to an education.
Personal conviction: Something a person strongly feels or believes in.
Prejudice: Pre-judging; judging people to be inferior or superior without cause.
Relative poverty: A standard of poverty measured in relation to the standards of a society in which a person lives. For example, living on a specific percentage of the average UK wage.
Absolute poverty: An acute state of deprivation, whereby someone cannot access even basic human needs like food and water.
Social justice: Promoting a fair society by challenging injustice and valuing diversity. Ensuring that everyone has equal access to provisions, equal opportunities and rights.

Relationships: Family and Roles

Definition of Family: The family is considered the foundation of all human activity and the place where the shared values and norms of society are lived out. Rabbi Menachem Schneerson describes the family as a "microcosm of the universe."
Different Types of Family: * Nuclear family: Consists of $2$ parents and $1$ or more children living in the same house. This is the most common family type. * Extended family: A number of different generations living in the same house, including children, parents, grandparents, and cousins. * Reconstituted family: Created when divorced parents remarry or cohabit, resulting in new families with step-brothers and step-sisters. * Single parent family: One parent raising one or more children alone. This type has risen as divorce rates have increased. * Childless family: A couple who are unable or decide not to have children. This includes same-sex couples, though this demographic is changing.
Traditional Views on Gender Roles: * Islam, Judaism, and Christianity have historically held patriarchal views. * The traditional view assigns the man the role of providing wealth while the woman is responsible for the home. * Historical views sometimes saw women as property or subjects of the male head of the household. * Hadith by Sahih Bukhari (9:89:252): "A man is the guardian of his family and is responsible for his subjects; a woman is guardian of her husband’s home and of his children and is responsible for them… Surely everyone of you is a guardian and responsible for his charges."
Families in the 21st Century: * Women are increasingly seen as equal partners. * More women are in the workforce. * The number of stay-at-home fathers has doubled to $229,000$ since $1993$ . * Law changes allow men and women to share parental leave.
Linking Family and Religion: * Religion is primarily taught in the home. * Parents take children to worship and show them how to read holy texts. * Religious teachings, such as the $10$ Commandments, are passed on. * Children learn about and celebrate religious festivals. * Humanist/Atheist Perspective: Believe children should not be raised religiously; children should have the autonomy to make their own choices. Some categorize religious upbringing as brainwashing. * The Global Religious Family: Religion provides a global family. Christians are designated as "people of God" regardless of origin, and Muslims belong to the worldwide "ummah." * Pope Francis: States that the family is the "essential cell of society and the Church." He emphasizes that mothers play a vital role in "passing on the faith" and views young people as the "face of the Church’s future."

The Nature and Purpose of Marriage

Christian Attitudes to Marriage: * Marriage is viewed as a sacrament and a gift from God, "ordained by God." * It is considered a lifelong commitment and the ideal environment for raising children. * Vows reflect marriage's special significance. * Jesus affirms marriage's importance in the Gospels. * Genesis teaches that man and woman were created for one another, becoming "one flesh."
Muslim Attitudes to Marriage: * Marriage is a gift from God and the basis for family life as stated in the Quran. * All Muslims are encouraged to marry. * It should be for life, although divorce is permitted. * Marriage supports the continuation of faith and the health of the ummah.
Humanist Attitudes to Marriage: * Viewed as a significant ceremony showing commitment. * Ceremonies are strictly non-religious.
Wedding Ceremonies: * Church of England Wedding: Items include exchange of vows (support in good/bad times, health/illness), exchange of rings (symbolizing eternity), a sermon by the vicar, hymns, prayers, and the legal signing of the register with a registrar. * Muslim Wedding (Nikah): A simple commitment ceremony. Involves the wali (woman’s guardian) offering the bride, two adult Muslim witnesses, the mahr (dowry/marriage gift), and a signed marriage contract. Vows are optional; usually followed by a walima (wedding banquet). * Orthodox Christians: Couples are crowned, representing the power of the Holy Spirit. * Non-conformist Churches: Often less formal, no altar, with higher emphasis on Bible readings.
Temporary Marriage (Nikah Mut’ah): * Practiced by some Twelver Shia Muslims. * Originates from when fighters were away from home. * The marriage is for a fixed period with a signed contract specifying rules and duration. A dowry is given. * Used by some to mix freely under Shari’ah law; rejected by Sunnis and some Shias because the $2$ nd caliph outlawed it.

Issues in Modern Relationships

Interfaith Marriage Issues: Challenges include the Orthodox Church only marrying baptized Christians, Catholic requirements to raise children as Catholic, location of ceremony, differing gender role expectations, dietary rules, family rejection, and differing beliefs on contraception/afterlife.
Cohabitation: * Liberal Anglicans: Allow it as preparation for marriage. * Catholics: Disagree with cohabitation and pre-marital sex because sex is considered sacred. * Baptists: Some may refuse to marry cohabiting couples. * Islam: Always wrong because pre-marital sex is forbidden.
Adultery: * Christianity: Always wrong; forbidden in the $10$ Commandments; breaks the sacred sacrament of marriage. * Islam: Forbidden in the Qur’an; equated to theft; destroys the trust of a lifelong commitment and damages the ummah.
Divorce: * Catholics: No religious divorce permitted; use Mark $10:9$ ("What God has put together, let no one separate"); legal divorce bars one from Holy Communion. Annulment is possible if sex never occurred or if the marriage was invalid (underage, forced, not of sound mind). * Liberal Anglicans: Allow divorce as the "lesser of two evils" if the couple is unhappy; re-marriage preferred in non-church settings. * Methodists: Will re-marry divorced people if they are committed. * Islam: Discouraged but not prohibited. Husband must declare intention $3$ times; the couple must separate for $3$ months (Iddah) while living in the same house without sex. A religious divorce is granted by an imam. * Humanist: Acceptable if people are unhappy; children's needs should be prioritized.

Sexual Relationships and Contraception

Purpose of Sex: Traditionally for procreation; modern views include pleasure and affection due to contraception.
Christian Attitudes: Sex is a sacred gift from God for use within marriage. Promiscuity (casual sex) devalues the gift.
Muslim Attitudes: Sex is a gift and a form of worship. Qur’an $17:32$ warns not to "approach unlawful sexual intercourse" as it is "evil as a way."
Chastity and Celibacy: * Chastity: Practicing no sex until marriage. The "Silver Ring Thing" in the US is a symbol of this. * Celibacy: Deciding never to marry or have sex. Catholic priests, monks, and nuns take vows of celibacy to devote lives to God.
Contraception: * Catholics: Forbid artificial contraception. Use Thomas Aquinas’s Natural Moral Law; since procreation is a Primary Precept, contraception is an unnatural act (Secondary Precept). * Protestants: Mostly accept it to limit family size, enjoy sex, or stop STIs. * Islam: Allowed if it doesn't harm the body and both partners agree. Permanent forms (sterilization) are generally not allowed. * Humanist: Positive view as it assists in enjoying life.

Gender Equality and Same-Sex Relationships

Same-Sex Relationships: * Legal milestones: Decriminalized in $1967$ ; Civil Partnership Act; Marriage Act. * Catholic: Forbidden as it violates Natural Law (cannot procreate). Pope Francis notes marriage is between man and woman. * Traditional Protestant/Anglican: Use Leviticus $20:13$ (calling it "detestable") and $1$ Timothy $1:10$ to oppose homosexuality. * Liberal Anglican: Emphasize "love our neighbours"; support satisfying relationships. * Islam: Forbidden; marriages occur only between men and women; Qur’an story of Lot condemns approaching men with desire.
Gender Equality: * Historical Context: $2010$ Equalities Act. * Evangelical Protestant: Believe men should work and women raise children based on Eve being led astray and $1$ Timothy suggesting women should not have authority over men. * Catholic: Men and women have equal family roles; women cannot be priests because Jesus was a man with male disciples. * Liberal/Modern Protestant: All equal. Galatians $3:28$ : "There is neither male nor female… you are all one in Jesus." Libby Lane became the first female bishop in $2015$ . * Islam: People are created as equals (Qur’an $4:1$ ). Men are usually imams. Some Sunnis allow women-led prayers for women. Men and women are often separate in worship.

Life and Death: The Origins of the Universe

Scientific Explanations: * Big Bang Theory: Singularity expanded rapidly $15$ billion years ago. Evidence includes the Red Shift Effect (universal expansion). Stephen Hawking was a major proponent. * Evolution: Charles Darwin's work in the Galapagos Islands; birds' beaks evolved for food sources. Concept of "survival of the fittest."
Religious Responses to Science: * Evangelical Protestants: Science is wrong; God created the world in $7$ days. "Young earth creationism" ( $10,000$ years old) vs "Old earth creationism" (metaphorical time). * Liberal Christians: Genesis stories are myths. Science and religion can coexist; God started the Big Bang or guided evolution (Theistic guided evolution). * Catholics: Science and Bible fit. "Let there be light" could be the Big Bang; "days" could mean billions of years. * Islam: Qur’an teaches creation over $6$ long periods. Most reject Darwin's evolution as it is linked to atheism. Dr. Hasan (Imam and scientist) claims the "Book of Nature and Book of God can be aligned."
Arguments for God's Existence: * Design Argument (Paley): William Paley used the watchmaker analogy; DNA and the human eye show signs of complex design. * Intelligent Design: Michael Behe argues for "irreducible complexity" (like a mousetrap needing all parts to work). * Causation Argument (Aquinas): Everything has a cause (cause and effect); God is the "First Cause." * Atheist View (Dawkins): Richard Dawkins argues design is an illusion; evolution needs no help from God; asks "Who designed the designer?"

Stewardship and the Environment

Concepts of Ownership: * Dominion: Humans have the right to rule and treat animals/earth as they wish (Genesis $1:28$ - "rule over"). View held by Evangelical Christians. * Stewardship: Responsibility to look after the planet for future generations (Genesis $2$ - "cultivate and care for").
Christian Stewardship: Christians believe they will be judged on treatment of the earth. Jesus taught to share resources. Parable of the Talents suggests humans must improve the world, not just leave it as found.
Muslim Stewardship (Khalifah): * Tawhid (Unity): Everything created by Allah is One; harming the environment harms ourselves. * Fitrah: Balance in the universe; fair resource use maintains this. * Hadith Example: Muhammad told of a prostitute forgiven for giving water to a thirsty dog.
Humanist View: Use reason to resources responsibly. Peter Singer argues against Speciesism, claiming animal life has equal value to human life.

Ethics of Life: Abortion and Euthanasia

Sanctity of Life: Belief that life is sacred from conception. Christians (Jeremiah $1:5$ : "Before I formed you in the womb I knew you") and Muslims (taking one life is like killing all mankind) share this.
Abortion: * Catholic/Pro-Life: Life begins at conception; abortion is murder; violates Natural Law. * Church of England: Acceptable as "lesser of two evils" if mother's life is at risk or to show compassion. * Islam: Mostly "Haram." Forbidden for economic reasons. Some allow it before ensoulment (disputed at $120$ days, $7$ weeks, or $16$ weeks). * Humanist: Weighed against evidence; mother’s right to choose is emphasized.
Euthanasia: * Types: Voluntary (assisted dying), Active (overdose), Passive (turning off machines), Involuntary (death penalty). * Christian Views: Most forbid it (Sanctity of Life, $10$ Commandments). Liberal Christians may accept it as a loving act (Acting like Jesus). * Muslim Views: Most forbid it (Haram, Al-Qadr/fate). Some accept passive euthanasia if recovery is impossible. * Humanist View: Support "Dignity in Dying"; quality of life is more important than sanctity of life.

Death, the Soul, and Rites

The Soul: * Dualists: Spiritual soul lives on; physical body dies. * Materialists: No soul; only physical matter (Humanist view). * Muslim view of Soul (Ruh): Imprinted with "fitrah" (belief in God). Ensoulment at $120$ days.
Afterlife and Judgment: * Christianity: Divine Judge; Parable of the Sheep and the Goats. Heaven (paradise) and Hell (separation from God). * Islam (Akhirah): One of $6$ Sunni beliefs. Barzakh (waiting). Day of Judgment signaled by Izrafil's trumpet. "Book of Deeds" determines fate. Janna (Heaven) vs Jahannam (Hell).
Funeral Rites: * Christian: Last Rites/Holy Communion; coffin; minister says "I am the resurrection and the life"; "Ashes to ashes, dust to dust." * Muslim: Shahada spoken; body washed/wrapped in white shawl (purity/equality); buried facing Makkah within $24$ hours; no cremation; Al-Fatihah recited; no headstones. * Humanist: Secular, focus on the contribution of the person; eulogies and quiet reflection.

Good and Evil: Crime and Punishment

Morality Type: * Absolute morality: Things are right or wrong ( $10$ Commandments; Quakers' anti-violence). * Relative morality: Depends on the situation/consequence (Situation Ethics/Utilitarianism).
Aims of Punishment: * Retribution: Making the criminal pay/suffer for the crime. * Deterrence: Putting others off committing the same crime. * Reformation: Teaching criminals to become better members of society. * Protection: Protecting society from dangerous people.
Religious Views on Punishment: * Christianity: Focus on forgiveness and reformation (Restorative Justice); Jesus taught compassion and betrayed his persecutors; involvement in prison reform (Elizabeth Fry - Quaker; John Howard - Calvinist). * Islam: Shari'ah Law provides deterrents; punishment is part of justice and being a "Khalifah." Deterrents include corporal punishment (e.g., cutting off hands for theft).
Death Penalty: * Abolished in the UK in $1970$ . * Liberal Christian/Quaker: Oppose it; only God can take life; support "Thou shalt not kill." * Conservative Christian: support "An eye for an eye"; Genesis $9:6$ says "whoever sheds the blood of man, by man shall his blood be shed." * Islam: Most agree as a fitting punishment for murder or attacks on Islam; some oppose it due to the potential for killing innocents in oppressive regimes. * Humanist: Opposed; margin for error is too great; premeditated killing is wrong.

Human Rights and Social Justice

Foundations: Universal Declaration of Human Rights ( $UDHR$ - $1948$ ) formulated after WWII. Part of UK law via the Human Rights Act.
Amnesty International: Protect rights through protest marches, letter-writing (e.g., Raif Badawi in Saudi Arabia), and media awareness (e.g., Nazanin Zaghari-Ratcliffe in Iran).
Social Justice Campaigners: * Malala Yousafzai: Campaigned for girls' education in Pakistan against the Taliban; shot in the head at age $11$ ; continues global advocacy. * Martin Luther King: Used religious beliefs and agape to fight racial inequality via non-violent protest. * Oscar Romero: Liberation theologian killed for taking a stand against unjust government systems.
Practices Promoting Equality: * Agape: Selfless/unconditional love (Jesus healing lepers, Parable of the Good Samaritan). * Ummah in Action: Zakah ( $2.5\%$ ), Sadaqah, Islamic Relief/Muslim Aid. Malcolm X noted racial equality during the Hajj.
Wealth and Poverty: * UK Distribution: Bottom $1/5th$ of society has $8\%$ of wealth; top $1/5th$ has $40\%$ . * Christian view: Matthew $6$ warns money shouldn't get in the way of God; Parable of the Sheep and the Goats; Rich Man and Lazarus (wealthy man goes to hell for ignoring poor Lazarus). * Muslim view: Wealth is a gift from God; Khums ( $20\%$ Shia practice); Riba (interest) and gambling are forbidden (Haram).
Christian Aid: Ecumenical charity operating in over $60$ countries; focuses on dignity, justice, and solidarity.
Islamic Relief: Operates in over $40$ countries; core values are Compassion, Justice, Custodianship, Sincerity, and Excellence.

Questions & Discussion

Question: What does adultery mean? * Response: Adultery is voluntary sexual intercourse between a married person and a person who is not their spouse. ( $2$ marks for fully correct definition).
Question: Describe what Christians believe about the origins of the world. * Response: Evangelical Christians believe the world was created in $7$ days as described in Genesis, often identifying as "young earth creationists." Other liberal Christians interpret the creation story non-literally, supporting ideas like the Big Bang while believing God was the catalyst. ( $5$ marks for $2$ developed reasons plus a source of wisdom).
Question: Evaluate the statement 'Religions should do more to fight against racial prejudice and discrimination.' * Response: Arguments in favor include the work of MLK and religious teachings on agape and equality (Galatians $3:28$ ). Arguments against might point to discrimination within religion (lack of female priests) or historical associations with groups like the KKK. A conclusion should justify whether religious motivation typically increases efforts toward social justice. ( $15$ marks for balanced evaluation with religious references).