All units
UNIT 1 - PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES
Humanistic Perspective
- Definition: Emphasizes the whole individual, free will, self-efficacy, and self-actualization.
- Key Concepts: Fulfilling potential, maximizing well-being.
Psychoanalytic/Dynamic Perspective
- Psychoanalytic Definition: Focuses on the unconscious mind (Sigmund Freud).
- Psychodynamic Definition: Emphasizes unconscious processes, childhood experiences.
Biological Perspective
- Definition: Examines psychological issues through the study of physical basis (brain, genetics).
Evolutionary Perspective
- Definition: Proposes personalities evolve for adaptive advantage.
- Key Concept: "Survival of the fittest."
Cognitive Perspective
- Definition: Analyzes human traits in terms of underlying cognitive processes.
- Example: Reasoning through logic.
Sociocultural Perspective
- Definition: Considers awareness of individual circumstances (sex, race, ethnicity).
- Example: Consideration of cultural background.
Eclectic (Multiple Perspectives)
- Definition: Chooses methods from different schools of thought for tailored plans.
Famous Psychologists for Each Perspective
- Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalytic
- John Watson: Behavioral
- Abraham Maslow: Humanistic
- Ivan Pavlov: Biological
- Charles Darwin: Evolutionary
- Ulrich Neisser: Cognitive
- Kurt Lewin: Sociocultural
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UNIT 2 - RESEARCH METHODS
Descriptive Research Method
- Definition: Describes characteristics of population or phenomenon.
- Examples: Case studies, surveys, naturalistic observation.
Correlation Research Method
- Definition: Measures statistical relationship between variables.
Experimental Research Method
- Definition: Manipulates variables to test hypotheses.
- Components: Hypothesis, methods, results.
- Key Terms: Independent variable (IV), dependent variable (DV).
Random Assignment
- Definition: Uses chance procedures in experiments for equal group assignment.
Experimental Control Group
- Definition: Group exposed to independent variable.
Control Group
- Definition: Group not receiving experimental treatment.
Placebo
- Definition: Inert treatment with no known effects.
Double Blind
- Definition: Neither participant nor experimenter aware of group assignments.
Correlation
- Definition: Statistical index representing relationship strength between factors.
- Coefficient: Number from -1 to +1 indicating strength and direction.
Scatterplot
- Note: Positive/negative relationship doesn't imply goodness/badness.
Measures of Central Tendency
- Mode: Most frequent score.
- Mean: Arithmetic average.
- Range: Difference between highest and lowest values.
Generalizability
- Definition: Measure of study results' applicability to broader groups/situations.
Standard Deviation
- Definition: Measure of variation indicating distance between scores and mean.
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UNIT 3 - FUNCTIONS OF THE BODY
Endorphins
- Definition: Chemicals released in response to stress or pain.
- Functions: Relieve pain, reduce stress, offer well-being.
Parts and Functions of the Brain
- Cerebrum: Largest part, interprets senses, emotions, learning.
- Cerebellum: Coordinates movements.
- Brainstem: Connects cerebrum with spinal cord, controls visceral activity.
Parts and Functions of Neurons
- Cell Body: Brain of the neuron.
- Axon: Passes messages.
- Neural Impulse: Electrical signal.
- Myelin Sheath: Speeds up messages.
- Terminal Branches: Form junctions.
- Dendrites: Receive messages.
Parts and Functions of the Nervous System
- Definition: Body's main communication system.
- Basic Unit: Neuron.
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UNIT 4 - 7 QUESTIONS
Process of Hearing
- Outer Ear: Funneling soundwaves.
- Middle Ear: Eardrum, ossicles (hammer, anvil, stirrup).
- Inner Ear: Cochlea, basilar membrane, auditory nerve.
- Semicircular Canals: Assist with vestibular sense.
Process of Vision
- Cornea, Pupil, Lens: Light passage.
- Rods and Cones: Detect light, color.
- Muller-Lyer Illusion: Optical illusion.
Gestalt Principles
- Proximity: Close objects appear related.
- Similarity: Similar things grouped together.
- Continuity: Elements on a line or curve related.
- Closure: Brain fills in missing parts.
- Connectedness: Connected elements perceived as related.
Sensory Adaptation
- Definition: Reduction in sensitivity after constant exposure.
- Purpose: Free up attention for other stimuli.
Sensory Interaction
- Definition: Senses interact, e.g., taste + smell + texture = flavor.
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UNIT 5 - DRUGS, DREAM THEORIES, HYPNOSIS
Types of Drugs
- Stimulants: Speed up messages in the brain.
- Depressants: Inhibit central nervous system.
- Opium-related Painkillers: Used for pain.
- Hallucinogens: Produce psychological effects.
Freud's Theory of Dreams
- Definition: Dreams represent unconscious desires, thoughts, wish fulfillment.
- Key Concept: Driven by repressed and unconscious longings.
Hypnosis
- Definition: Therapeutic technique using suggestions.
- Example: Quitting smoking.
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UNIT 6 - TYPES OF CONDITIONING
Cognitive Maps (Tolman Experiment)
- Definition: Visual representations of mental models.
- Example: Mental map of surroundings.
Observational Learning (Albert Bandura)
- Definition: Learning by observing and modeling others.
- Conditions: Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation.
Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)
- Definition: Learning through associations.
- Example: Pavlov's dog experiment.
Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)
- Definition: Learning through rewards/punishments.
- Positive Reinforcement: Adding a reinforcing stimulus.
- Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus.
- Positive Punishment: Adding something unpleasant.
- Negative Punishment: Removing something desirable.
Schedules of Reinforcement
- Fixed vs. Variable: Set vs. changing intervals or ratios.
- Interval vs. Ratio: Time-based vs. response-based.
- Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcement every time.
- Primary Reinforcer: Natural, unlearned reinforcer.
- Secondary Reinforcer: Learned association with primary reinforcer.
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UNIT 7 - MEMORY
Types of Memory
- Episodic: Recall of specific personal events.
- Semantic: Memory of meaning, general knowledge.
- Procedural: Memory of how to perform actions.
- Iconic: Memory of visual stimuli.
- Echoic: Memory of auditory information.
Encoding, Storage, Retrieval
- Encoding:
Processing information into memory system.
- Storage: Retaining encoded information over time.
- Retrieval: Bringing stored information to conscious awareness.
Sensory Memory
- Duration: Brief (seconds).
- Capacity: Large but limited.
Working Memory
- Definition: Active processing of incoming auditory/visual-spatial information.
- Components: Central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer.
Long-Term Memory
- Duration: Unlimited.
- Capacity: Unlimited.
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UNIT 8 - MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
Theories of Motivation
- Drive-Reduction Theory: Satisfy physiological needs.
- Arousal Theory: Seek optimum levels of arousal.
- Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Pyramid of physiological to self-actualization needs.
Theories of Emotion
- James-Lange Theory: Physical reactions precede emotions.
- Cannon-Bard Theory: Physical reactions and emotions occur simultaneously.
- Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory: Physiological arousal + cognitive interpretation = emotion.
Emotional Intelligence
- Definition: Ability to perceive, understand, manage, and regulate emotions.
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UNIT 9 - DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
- Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 years.
- Preoperational Stage: 2 to 7 years.
- Concrete Operational Stage: 7 to 11 years.
- Formal Operational Stage: 12 years and beyond.
Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development
- Trust vs. Mistrust: Infancy.
- Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: Toddlerhood.
- Initiative vs. Guilt: Preschool.
- Industry vs. Inferiority: Childhood.
- Identity vs. Role Confusion: Adolescence.
- Intimacy vs. Isolation: Young adulthood.
- Generativity vs. Stagnation: Middle adulthood.
- Integrity vs. Despair: Late adulthood.