Developments in South & Southeast Asia (1200–1450)

Southern India: Political Structures

• Southern India was more stable than northern India.
• Major kingdoms:
  • Chola Dynasty
  • Vijayanagara Empire ( $1336\text{--}1646$ )
  • Named from the word for "the victorious city."
  • Started with two brothers Harihara and Bukka
• The Delhi Sultanate in the north wanted to extend Islamic reach to the south.

Northern India: Political Structures

• Over time, the Islamic presence in the region grew
• $8\text{th}$ Century - Islamic armies invade what is today Pakistan
• $11\text{th}$ Century Islamic forces plundered Hindu and Buddhist temples and shrines in northern India
• In the early $13\text{th}$ century, Islamic forces managed to conquer the city of Delhi and much of the northern portion of South Asia.
• Delhi Sultanate reigned for $300\text{ years}$, from the $13\text{th}$ through the $16\text{th}$ centuries.

Delhi Sultanate: Administrative Structure

• The Delhi Sultanate never organized an efficient bureaucracy in the style of the Chinese.
• Sultans had difficulty imposing their policies in a land as vast and diverse as India.
• Ruled northern India $1206\text{--}1526\ \mathrm{C.E.}$
• Weak administrative structure
• Sultans wanted to extend their rule southward.
  • Had to focus on defending themselves from an onslaught by the Mongol army from the northwest.

The Arrival of Islam in South Asia

• Muslim rulers found early in their reign that forcing conversion was not successful and many came voluntarily.
• With its emphasis on the equality of all believers, Islam attracted low-caste Hindus who hoped that conversion would improve their social status.
• The largest numbers of converts to Islam, however, were Buddhists.

Social Structure in South Asia

• Islam altered very little to the structure of society in South Asia.
• India's caste system is its strongest historical continuity.
• The caste system was flexible and able to accommodate newcomers.
• Those who tried to escape the caste system failed.

Cultural Interactions in South Asia

• People in South Asia and the Middle East shared their intellectual and cultural achievements.
• In India, sultans erected buildings melding the Hindu art with the geometric patterns preferred of Islamic architecture.
  • $Qutub\ Minar$ stands in the Delhi Sultanate
• New language developed among Muslims of South Asia: Urdu.
• Urdu — Arabic, Persian, Turkish; Language of Pakistan
• The Bhakti Movement Beginning in the $12\text{th}$ century
• Though the Bhaktis were Hindus, they were similar in some ways to Sufi Muslims.
  • Both groups were mystical movements
  • emphasized inner reflection in order to achieve a direct personal relationship with a deity
  • placed less emphasis on strict adherence to traditional rituals and beliefs
• Just as the Sufis helped spread Islam, the Bhaktis helped spread Hinduism.

Dara Shikoh and the Upanishads (1657)

• Passage: "Let the blessings of Allah be upon Muhammad and his companions universally. In the year $1640\,\mathrm{C.E.}$ I wanted to behold the mystics of every sect, to hear the lofty expressions of monotheism, and to cast my eyes upon many books of mysticism. I, therefore, examined the Book of Moses, the Gospels, and the Psalms. Among the Hindus, the best of their heavenly books, which contain all the secrets of pure monotheism, are called the Upanishads. Because I do not know Sanskrit, I wanted to make an exact and literal translation of the Upanishads into Persian. For the Upanishads are a treasure of monotheism and there are few thoroughly conversant with them even among the Indians. Thereby I also wanted to make the texts accessible to Muslims. I assembled Hindu scholars and ascetics to help with the translation. Every sublime topic that I had desired or thought and had looked for and not found, I obtained from these most ancient books, the source and fountainhead of the ocean of religious unity, in conformity with the holy Qur’an.*
• Persian was the primary language used at the Mughal court. Dara Shikoh, son of the Mughal ruler Shah Jahan, account of the translation of the Upanishads into Persian, 1657 C.E.
• Based on the passage, which of the following most strongly influenced Dara Shikoh’s religious views?
  • A. Shi‘ism
  • B. Sufism
  • C. Buddhism
  • D. Zoroastrianism

Southeast Asia: Overview and Connections

• Like China, South Asia strongly influenced its neighbors, particularly the lands of Southeast Asia—today's Indonesia, Malaysia, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam.
• Trade voyages introduced the Indian religions of Hinduism and Buddhism to Southeast Asia.
• Whoever controlled this region could influence the valuable trade between South Asia and East Asia.

Southeast Asia Sea-Based Kingdoms

• The Srivijaya Empire ( $670\text{--}1025$ ) Hindu kingdom based on Sumatra.
• The Majapahit Kingdom ( $1293\text{--}1520$ ) based on Java had $98$ tributaries at its height.
  • Like Srivijaya, Majapahit sustained its power by controlling sea routes.
  • Unlike Srivijaya, Majapahit was Buddhist.

Southeast Asia Land-Based Kingdoms

• The Sinhala dynasties in Sri Lanka had their roots in the arrival of early Immigrants, most likely merchants, from north India.

Southeast Asia: The Khmer Empire (Angkor)

• The Khmer Empire, also known as the Angkor Kingdom ( $802\text{--}1431$ )
• The Khmer capital was at Angkor Thom.
  • Angkor Thom is the entire city
  • Angkor Wat is the temple
• Massive display of Hindu architecture and culture sprinkled in with Buddhist origins.

Southeast Asia: Angkor Wat

Southeast Asia: Religions and Trade

• By the $1300s$ two of the great universal religions were filtering peacefully into the region: Theravada Buddhism and Islam.
• Theravada Buddhism from Sri Lanka became the dominant religion of the major mainland societies (except Vietnam) by incorporating the rich animism of the peasant villages and the Hinduism of the courts.
• Sunni Islam arrived from the Middle East and India, spreading widely in the Malay peninsula and Indonesian archipelago while gradually displacing or incorporating the local animism and Hinduism; it was closely tied to international trade.
• Through this process of trade and religious networks, Southeast Asia became even more firmly linked to the peoples of Southern and Western Asia…
• Beginning in the $14\text{th}$ century a new pattern of world trade was developing that more closely linked Asia, Europe and parts of Africa. There was no particular center but Southeast Asia, especially the archipelago region, became an essential intermediary as long voyages were replaced by shorter hops and more frequent trans-shipment. This enhanced the value of regional ports and a half dozen distinct commercial zones arose in Southeast Asia. Southeast Asian peoples like the Malays and Javanese played active roles in the interregional trade, which also spurred the growth of cities. Changes in the international maritime economy beginning around $1400$ fostered an unprecedented commercial prosperity and an increasing cultural cosmopolitanism, most especially in the archipelago. A new type of maritime trading state arose to handle the increased amounts of local products dispatched to distant markets. Craig Lockard, “Southeast Asia in World History.”
• Why would Southeast Asian elites be more likely to embrace Hinduism than Buddhism?
  • A. Hinduism created multiple opportunities to accumulate wealth through reincarnation.
  • B. Hinduism legitimized their high status through beliefs in karma and the caste system.
  • C. Buddhism demanded harsh punishments against the common people which would destabilize their power.
  • D. Animism was offensive to Muslim merchants who were important trade partners.

Southeast Asia: Islam and Sufis

• Islam's movement into the Indian Ocean region paralleled its expansion elsewhere.
  • Merchants in SEA converted hoping to have better trading relations with the Islamic merchants who arrived on their shores.
  • Islam spread to Sumatra, Java, and the Malay Peninsula.
• Sufis did missionary work in Southeast Asia.
  • Because of their tolerance for local faiths, people felt comfortable converting to Islam.
  • They could be Muslims and still honor local deities.