Comprehensive Global History and Geography Regents Review

SOCIAL SCIENTISTS AND HISTORICAL SOURCES

• Social Scientists: These are individuals who dedicate their studies to the world and human existence. They are categorized based on their specific areas of focus:

  • Historians: These scholars examine written records resulting from past occurrences to understand history.

  • Geographers: They study the physical surface of the Earth and the various ways it influences human life. Their research includes topography (the features of the land), climate (weather patterns), human migrations (the movement of people), and the methods by which humans learn to adapt to and inhabit diverse environments. They utilize two primary map types:

    • Political Maps: These illustrate countries, established borders, and capital cities.

    • Physical Maps: These display topographical features such as mountains, deserts, rivers, and lakes.

  • Economists: These specialists analyze how various societies utilize their available resources. They focus on three core questions regarding civilizations: What specific goods and services are being produced? What methods are used for their production? How are these goods and services distributed among the population?

  • Anthropologists: These scientists study human cultures throughout history and in the present day.

    • Archaeologists: A specific branch of anthropology that reconstructs the culture of past societies by analyzing physical remains known as artifacts.

• Historical Sources: Historians rely on two distinct categories of records to analyze the past:

  • Primary Sources: These are firsthand accounts of historical events produced by individuals who witnessed or experienced the event directly. Examples include photographs, artifacts, diaries, and autobiographies.

  • Secondary Sources: These are secondhand records of history created by individuals who did not personally experience the events described. Examples include encyclopedias, textbooks, and biographies.

THE NEOLITHIC AGE ($8000-3000\,BC$)

• Overview: Frequently referred to as the "New Stone Age," this era marked a fundamental shift in human existence.

• Key Advancements:

  • Discovery of Agriculture: Humans learned to farm and domesticate (raise) animals for food and drink for the first time.

  • Sedentary Lifestyle: Humans transitioned from being nomads (people who wander in search of food through hunting and gathering) to becoming settled farmers residing in permanent villages.

  • Food Surplus: Consistent farming practices led to a steady and reliable food supply.

  • Rise of Civilizations: The permanent settlements established during this time eventually evolved into complex civilizations.

• Historical Significance: Because the shift to farming was so transformative, it is widely known as the "Neolithic Revolution."

ANCIENT RIVER VALLEY CIVILIZATIONS ($c. 3000-1000\,BC$)

• Defining Civilization: A civilization is characterized as a highly organized and complex society featuring a government, distinct social classes, specialized jobs, food surpluses, writing systems, and religious beliefs.

• Favorable Geography: Early civilizations emerged in river valleys (low regions adjacent to rivers) because:

  • Flooding deposited silt, which created fertile soil ideal for agriculture.

  • Rivers provided water for irrigation systems.

  • Rivers served as vital routes for transportation.

• Major River Valley Civilizations:

  • Egypt: Established in Northeastern Africa along the Nile River. Achievements include the development of hieroglyphics (writing using picture symbols) and the construction of pyramids (massive tombs for Pharaohs/kings).

  • Mesopotamia (Sumer): Located in the Middle East along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Achievements include cuneiform (a wedge-shaped writing system) and the Code of Hammurabi (the oldest known written law code, famous for its "an eye for an eye" philosophy and harsh punishments).

  • Harappan Civilization: Located in India along the Indus River. Known for highly organized and well-planned urban (city) areas. Society was heavily influenced by monsoons—seasonal winds that brought essential rain for farming but also carried the risk of dangerous flooding.

  • China: Developed along the Yellow (Huang He) and Yangtze Rivers. Early Chinese society was isolated from others due to natural barriers like deserts and mountains.

• Common Characteristics of Ancient Societies:

  • Polytheistic Religions: Belief in many gods, typically associated with nature (e.g., Sun, Rain, and Wind gods).

  • Traditional Economic Systems: Characterized by:

    • Barter: The exchange of goods without using money.

    • Subsistence Agriculture: Farming intended only to feed the farmer's family, with little to no surplus for profit.

    • Heritage of Occupation: Children typically took on the same jobs as their parents, usually in agriculture.

CLASSICAL CIVILIZATIONS ($c. 1000\,BC-500\,AD$)

• Definition: These were societies more recent and advanced than the ancient river valley civilizations. Most experienced a Golden Age—a period of significant progress in math, science, literature, and art.

• Greece:

  • Geography: Located on a peninsula in southeastern Europe with an irregular coastline. The mountainous terrain prevented political unification, leading to the rise of independent city-states (polis).

  • Sparta: A military-centric society where men trained for war for most of their lives, and individual freedom was highly restricted.

  • Athens: Established the world’s first democracy. It was a direct democracy where adult male citizens born in Athens voted on laws. It focused on culture, producing famous writers like Homer and philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.

  • Religion: Polytheistic; the Olympic Games were held every $4$ years to honor the god Zeus.

  • Alexander the Great: A leader who conquered Egypt, Greece, Persia (Iran), and parts of India. He is credited with spreading Hellenistic culture—a blend of Greek, Persian, Egyptian, and Indian influences.

• Rome:

  • Geography: Located on the Italian peninsula. It grew from a city-state into a massive empire surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, covering Western Europe, North Africa, Greece, Anatolia, and Western Asia.

  • Infrastructure: Built extensive road and trade networks as well as using the Mediterranean Sea to unite the empire and generate wealth.

  • Twelve Tables of Rome: A public, written set of laws that provided social stability. While favoring the wealthy, they established clear rules of behavior.

  • Legal Legacy: Developed concepts such as "innocent until proven guilty."

  • Pax Romana: A $200$-year period of "Roman Peace" and a Golden Age of achievement.

• India:

  • Maurya Dynasty: Led by Asoka, who wrote laws on tall rock pillars across India. He converted to Buddhism and was noted for the kind treatment of animals and people.

  • Gupta Dynasty: Considered the Golden Age of India. Accomplishments include the mathematical concept of $zero$, Buddhist paintings, and the Sanskrit writing system.

  • Caste System: A rigid social hierarchy where individuals were born into a specific class (caste) for life. Castes included Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaisyas (merchants/artisans), and Sudras (laborers). The Untouchables occupied the lowest tier with the most difficult labor. This system provided social structure and is tied to Hinduism.

• China:

  • Qin Dynasty: Lasted only $15$ years. Governed by Legalism—the belief that humans are inherently evil and require harsh punishments to maintain order.

  • Han Dynasty: Lasted $400$ years. Featured trade networks similar to Rome and the first Civil Service System, where government jobs were awarded to those who passed rigorous examinations.

• Silk Road: A $,1000$-mile trade route connecting China to the Mediterranean. It facilitated cultural diffusion—the exchange of ideas (like Buddhism) and goods (like silk) between civilizations.

WORLD RELIGIONS AND PHILOSOPHIES

• Monotheistic Religions: Believing in one God, these religions include Judaism, Islam, and Christianity. All follow moral codes of conduct issued by God:

  • Ten Commandments: Code for Jews and Christians prohibiting acts like killing, stealing, and idol worship.

  • Five Pillars: Code for Muslims, including daily prayer and pilgrimage to Mecca.

• Religions of India:

  • Hinduism: Beliefs include Reincarnation (soul rebirth), Karma (the tally of good and bad deeds determining next-life status), and the Caste System. The ultimate goal is Moksha, the end of the reincarnation cycle.

  • Buddhism: Founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha). Shares beliefs in Karma and Reincarnation. The goal is Nirvana (equivalent to Moksha). This is achieved by accepting the Four Noble Truths (life is suffering caused by selfish desire) and following the Eightfold Path (a code of kindness, meditation, and resisting evil).

• Philosophies of China:

  • Legalism: The view that humans are evil and require strict laws and harsh punishments for order.

  • Confucianism: Based on the Five Relationships (specific duties for rulers/subjects, husbands/wives, parents/children to maintain stability) and Filial Piety (honoring and respecting elders and parents).

• Nature Religions: The belief that spirits exist in both living and non-living elements of nature (trees, rain, mountains). Examples include Shinto (Japan) and Animism (Africa).

THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE ($c. 500-1453\,AD$)

• Formation: After the Western Roman Empire fell to Germanic tribes in $476\,AD$, the eastern half survived as the Byzantine Empire.

• Key Features:

  • Culture: Predominantly Greek in language and culture.

  • Constantinople: A capital city serving as a trade crossroads between Asia and Europe due to its location on major waterways.

  • Religion: Practiced Eastern Orthodox Christianity; notable for the Hagia Sophia church.

  • Justinian Code: A standardized system of laws created by Emperor Justinian, based on Roman law, which later influenced European legal systems.

  • Preservation: They saved and transmitted vital Greek and Roman texts.

• Influence on Russia: Through cultural diffusion, the Byzantines gave Russia the Eastern Orthodox religion and the Cyrillic alphabet.

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL LEGAL SYSTEMS

• Summary of Major Systems:

  • Code of Hammurabi: Ancient Mesopotamia; known for harsh punishments.

  • Twelve Tables of Rome: Roman Empire; protected stability but favored the wealthy.

  • Justinian Code: Byzantine Empire; based on Roman law and adopted by Europe.

• Important Characteristics: All three are standardized (written) sets of laws that define the relationship between the individual and the state while ensuring social stability.

THE GOLDEN AGE OF ISLAM

• Overview: Islam is a monotheistic religion founded by the prophet Muhammad (lived $570-632\,AD$) in Mecca. Its followers (Muslims) believe in one God (Allah) and follow the Koran (Qu’ran) and the Five Pillars of Islam.

• Expansion: After Muhammad’s death, Muslim forces conquered the Middle East, North Africa, and southern Spain.

• Golden Age ($c. 700-1200\,AD$): A period of immense progress in several fields:

  • Mathematics: Significant improvements, especially the development of algebra.

  • Medicine: The compilation of detailed medical encyclopedias.

  • Art: Known for textiles, calligraphy (beautiful writing), and woolen carpets.

THE MIDDLE AGES ($400-1400\,AD$)

• Definition: The era in Europe between the fall of Rome and the start of the Renaissance.

• Feudalism: A decentralized political system where kings granted land to nobles in exchange for military service and loyalty. Nobles served as knights, following the code of Chivalry (bravery and loyalty). Land served as the primary indicator of power and wealth.

• Manorialism: An economic system centered on the manor (noble-owned land). Manors were self-sufficient, featuring homes, farms, and serfs (peasants bound to the land). This self-sufficiency caused a decline in trade.

• Religion: The Roman Catholic Church and the Pope held immense wealth and influence in Western Europe.

• The Crusades ($1100-1300$): Holy wars fought by European Christians to reclaim Jerusalem (the Holy Land) from Muslims.

  • Causes: Hopes for wealth, escape from feudalism, religious forgiveness, and the belief that Muslims should not control the Holy Land.

  • Effects: Increased trade between Europe and the Middle East (benefiting Italian cities like Venice), the reintroduction of Islamic Golden Age knowledge to Europe, and the decline of feudalism as nobles died and serfs escaped.

TANG AND SONG DYNASTIES: THE GOLDEN AGE OF CHINA

• Period: $600s-1200s$.

• Key Inventions: Gunpowder, the magnetic compass (improving navigation), block printing, and porcelain (fine clay ceramics).

• Trade and Culture: Conducted long-distance trade via the Silk Road and the port of Canton. Cultural diffusion led to the spread of Buddhism into China. The state continued to use civil service exams for government recruitment.

EARLY JAPANESE HISTORY

• Geography: An archipelago (chain of islands) in East Asia with a mountainous interior and an irregular coastline. To farm, they used Terrace Farming (carving flat areas into mountains), a technique also used by the Inca.

• Religion: Practiced Shinto (nature spirits) alongside Buddhism.

• Chinese Influence: Through cultural diffusion, Japan adopted China’s system of writing, tea cultivation, and Buddhism.

• Japanese Feudalism: A decentralized system with a hierarchy:

  • Emperor and Shogun: Rulers (Shogun was the military general).

  • Daimyo: Wealthy nobles who received land for loyalty.

  • Samurai: Warriors who followed the code of Bushido (loyalty and bravery).

• Comparison with Europe: Both systems used codes of behavior (Chivalry vs. Bushido) and provided social structure and stability through decentralized power.

AFRICAN CIVILIZATIONS

• Geography: Diverse features including the Sahara Desert, savannas (grasslands), and rainforests. This diversity led to varied cultures. Today, the continent faces desertification (the expansion of desert land).

• Religion: Animism is the traditional belief in nature spirits.

• Bantu Migrations ($500\,BC-1500\,AD$): Due to land shortages, the Bantu people migrated across southern Africa, spreading their language, iron-making technology, and farming techniques.

• West African Kingdoms ($300-1400s$): Ghana, Mali, and Songhai grew wealthy by controlling the Trans-Saharan trade routes, specifically the Gold-Salt trade.

• Mansa Musa: Famous ruler of Mali who spread Islam, made a pilgrimage to Mecca, and established Timbuktu as a center of Islamic learning.

THE MONGOLS ($1100s-1400s$)

• Background: Nomadic pastoralists from the Central Asian steppes (grassy plains).

• Empire: Under Genghis Khan, they established the largest empire in history, including China, Russia, Central Asia, and the Middle East.

• Marco Polo: An Italian merchant who lived with the Mongols in China for nearly $20$ years. His primary source writings increased European interest in Chinese trade.

• Mongol Impact:

  • Pax Mongolica: A period of peace that allowed trade along the Silk Road to flourish.

  • Russia: Kept Russia isolated from Western Europe but introduced a centralized government and a tribute system (where conquered areas pay money to the ruler).

  • China: First foreign group to conquer the entire region.

TRANSFORMATION OF WESTERN EUROPE

• The Black Death ($1347-1351$): A bubonic plague that killed $25\,million$ people (one-third of Europe’s population). It spread from East Asia via trade routes. Effects included depopulation (from $85\,million$ to $60\,million$), a further decline in feudalism, and temporary trade disruption.

• The Renaissance ($1400-1600$): A Golden Age focusing on Humanism (life on earth and human achievement) rather than just religion. It began in wealthy Italian city-states like Florence and Venice.

  • Artists: Donatello, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael.

  • Machiavelli: Wrote "The Prince," advising that rulers should have absolute power and that "the end justifies the means."

• Protestant Reformation ($1500s$): A religious revolution triggered by corruption (like the sale of indulgences) in the Catholic Church.

  • Leaders: Martin Luther ($95$ Theses), Henry VIII (separated from the Church for a divorce), and John Calvin (Predestination).

  • Effects: Decreased power of the Pope, increased power of monarchs, and the end of religious unity in Europe.

• Printing Press: Invented by Johannes Gutenberg. It increased literacy, lowered book costs, and spread Reformation ideas quickly.

PRE-COLUMBIAN CIVILIZATIONS OF THE AMERICAS

• Maya: Located in Mesoamerica (Mexico/Central America). Developed a calendar, writing, and the mathematical use of $zero$.

• Aztec: Located in Central Mexico with the capital Tenochtitlan. Used a writing system, a calendar, and chinampas ("floating gardens") to create more farmland in lakes.

• Inca: Located in the Andes Mountains of Peru. Notable for the site of Machu Picchu, an extensive road network, and Terrace Farming (similar to Japan).

• Conquest: The Aztecs were defeated by Hernan Cortez in $1521$, and the Inca were defeated by Francisco Pizarro in $1532$.

AGE OF EXPLORATION AND ENCOUNTER ($1400s-1600s$)

• Causes: Desire for Asian spices, seeking sea routes to bypass Muslim-controlled land routes, and new technology (astrolabe, compass, cartography, lateen sails).

• Key Explorers: Bartholomeu Dias (Cape of Good Hope), Vasco da Gama (reached India), Christopher Columbus (Americas), and Ferdinand Magellan (circumnavigated the globe).

• Effects:

  • Colonization: Spain and Portugal took over lands in the Americas.

  • Encomienda System: A forced labor system where Native Americans worked on Spanish plantations and in mines.

  • Massive Mortality: Millions of Native Americans died from European diseases like smallpox.

  • Slave Trade: The Middle Passage brought African slaves to the Americas.

  • Mercantilism: The theory that colonies exist only to benefit the Mother Country; trade was strictly controlled.

  • Triangular Trade: Movement of slaves from Africa to the Americas and raw materials back to Europe.

  • Columbian Exchange: Global transfer of people, plants (corn, potatoes to Europe; wheat, sugar to Americas), animals (horses, chickens), and diseases.

• Commercial Revolution: Introduced joint-stock companies, expanded banking, and the rise of Capitalism.

THE AGE OF ABSOLUTISM ($1600s-1700s$)

• Definition: Period where nations were ruled by absolute monarchs with total control.

• Characteristics: Centralized political power, belief in Divine Right (power from God), and unlimited rule without the people’s consent.

• Key Monarchs: Peter the Great (Westernized/modernized Russia), Louis XIV (France), Suleiman the Magnificent (Ottoman Empire), and Henry VIII (England). Peter, Louis, and Suleiman were known for expanding their nations’ territories.

INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS

• Scientific Revolution ($1500s-1600s$): Use of logic and reason to explain the world. Key figures include Copernicus and Galileo (Heliocentric Theory), Isaac Newton (Calculus and Gravity), and Kepler and Descartes. It challenged the Catholic Church and paved the way for the Enlightenment.

• The Enlightenment ($1700s$): The "Age of Reason" applied logic to society and government. Key thinkers:

  • John Locke: Natural Rights (life, liberty, property) and the right to overthrow unjust governments.

  • Montesquieu: Separation of powers (three branches) and checks and balances.

  • Voltaire: Freedom of speech and religion.

  • Rousseau: The Social Contract.

• Effects: Sparked political revolutions and led to Enlightened Despots (monarchs who used Enlightenment principles).

POLITICAL REVOLUTIONS

• English/Glorious Revolution ($1689$): Limited the monarch's power, establishing a limited (constitutional) monarchy. Key documents: Magna Carta, Petition of Right, English Bill of Rights, and Habeas Corpus. These forced the King to share power with Parliament.

• French Revolution ($1789-1815$):

  • Causes: Unfair taxation of the Third Estate (peasants), absolute monarchy abuses, Enlightenment ideas, and economic debt.

  • Events: Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Reign of Terror (led by Robespierre and the Jacobins).

  • Napoleon Bonaparte: General who took power, spread nationalism, but was defeated after a failed winter invasion of Russia in $1812$.

• Latin American Revolutions ($1800-1830$): Led by nationalists like Simon Bolivar, Jose de San Martin, Miguel Hidalgo, and Toussaint L’Ouverture. They sought independence from Spain, Portugal, and France. Geography (mountains/rainforests) prevented the goal of one unified Latin American nation.

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ($1700s-1800s$)

• Origin: Started in Great Britain due to favorable geography (coal, iron, and waterways).

• Transitions: Shift from handmade goods to machine-made goods in factories.

• Effects: Urbanization (city growth), poor working conditions, pollution, the formation of Labor Unions, and eventually social legislation (minimum wage, ending child labor).

• Laissez Faire Capitalism: Economic system where individuals own businesses and prices are set by supply and demand without government interference.

• Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: Wrote the "Communist Manifesto." They believed capitalism exploited the Proletariat (workers) for the benefit of the Bourgeoisie (owners). They called for a violent revolution to end social classes and share wealth equally.

NATIONALISM

• Definition: Devotion to one’s country, usually based on shared language and history.

• Unification of Italy ($1870$): Achieved by Garibaldi, Mazzini, and Cavour.

• Unification of Germany ($1871$): Achieved by Otto von Bismarck using a "blood and iron" policy.

• Empire Breakdown: Nationalism caused multi-ethnic states like Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire to break apart.

• Ireland: Suffered the Potato Famine ($1845-1850$) resulting in $1\,million$ deaths and $1\,million$ emigrants. Southern Ireland gained independence in $1921$, while Northern Ireland remained British.

IMPERIALISM ($1800s-1914$)

• Background: Western nations (Britain, France, Germany, Italy) conquered weaker regions for raw materials.

• Justifications: "White Man’s Burden" (racist idea of civilizing others) and Social Darwinism (survival of the fittest nations).

• Regions:

  • Africa: "Scramble for Africa" saw $90\%$ of the continent colonized.

  • China: Opium Wars led to China being divided into spheres of influence.

  • India: Ruled by Britain for almost $200$ years. Attempts at independence included the Sepoy Mutiny (India) and the Boxer Rebellion (China), both of which failed.

  • Japan: Commodore Perry forced Japan to open trade in $1854$. This led to the Meiji Restoration ($1868-1912$), a period of rapid Westernization and modernization. Japan eventually became an imperial power itself, taking over Korea and parts of China for resources.

WORLD WAR I ($1914-1918$)

• Causes (M.A.I.N.): Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism. Sparked by the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand.

• Treaty of Versailles: Ended the war and severely punished Germany (blame, $30\,billion$ in reparations, reduced military, and lost land). This directly led to the rise of Hitler.

• Major Effects: Self-determination led to new nations like Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. The Armenian Massacre occurred (an early $20th$ century genocide). Women gained suffrage after working in factories during the war.

THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION ($1917$)

• Causes: Suffering in WWI, food shortages, and the perceived abuses of Czar Nicholas II.

• Bolsheviks: Radical group led by Vladimir Lenin, promising "Peace, Land, and Bread."

• Outcome: Nicholas II was executed, and Russia became the world’s first Communist nation.

INTERWAR TOTALITARIANISM

• Overview: Governments where one ruler has complete control over political, social, and economic life. Features include censorship, secret police, propaganda, and a single political party.

• Rise: Economic problems (inflation and unemployment) helped Hitler (Nazis in Germany) and Mussolini (Fascists in Italy) come to power.

• Joseph Stalin (Soviet Union): Established a Command Economy.

  • Five-Year Plans: Goals to modernize industry and agriculture.

  • Collectivization: Forced peasants onto state-owned farms. Resistance in the Ukraine led to a forced famine that killed millions.

WORLD WAR II ($1939-1945$)

• Aggression: Japan invaded Manchuria and committed the Rape of Nanking. Italy invaded Ethiopia. Hitler violated the Treaty of Versailles by building a military and taking Austria and Czechoslovakia.

• Appeasement: Policy of giving in to an aggressor to avoid war (e.g., Munich Conference). The war officially began when Hitler invaded Poland in $1939$.

• Key Events: Pearl Harbor (brought U.S. into war), Battle of Stalingrad (Hitler defeated by Russian winter), D-Day (Allied push in France), and the Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

• The Holocaust: Genocide of $6\,million$ Jews and $6\,million$ others.

• Post-War: Formation of the United Nations to prevent future wars. The Nuremberg Trials established that individuals are accountable for "crimes against humanity."

THE COLD WAR ($1945-1991$)

• Nature: A $50$-year ideological struggle between U.S. (democracy) and Soviet Union (communism) without direct combat between the two superpowers.

• Key Concepts: Iron Curtain (division of Europe), Containment (stopping communism via the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan), and Brinkmanship (Cuban Missile Crisis in $1962$, the closest the world came to nuclear war).

• Division: Germany was split into East (communist) and West (democratic). The Berlin Wall was built in $1961$. Military alliances formed: NATO vs. the Warsaw Pact.

• Proxy Conflicts: The Korean War and Vietnam War.

POST-COLD WAR AND GLOBAL ISSUES

• Communism in China: Mao Zedong took power in $1949$ with peasant support. He launched the Great Leap Forward (collectivization) and the Cultural Revolution (Red Guards). Deng Xiaoping later introduced market reforms but crushed democratic protests in the Tiananmen Square Massacre ($1989$).

• Decolonization: India/Pakistan split ($1948$). African nations gained independence, though some faced issues like Apartheid in South Africa (ended by Nelson Mandela in $1990$) or the Rwandan Genocide ($1994$).

• Middle East: Creation of Israel ($1948$) led to ongoing wars with Palestinians. Islamic Fundamentalism rose in Iran ($1979$) and under the Taliban in Afghanistan.

• Collapse of Communism: Mikhail Gorbachev used Perestroika (economic reform) and Glasnost (openness). The Berlin Wall fell in $1989$, and the Soviet Union dissolved in $1991$.

• Environment: Issues include the Ozone Layer depletion, Acid Rain, Deforestation, Desertification (Sahel), the Greenhouse Effect, and nuclear accidents like Chernobyl ($1986$).