Social Movements and Social Change
Introduction to Social Movements and Social Change
Module Overview: This lecture concludes the module, building on previous topics of deviance, racism, and inequality by introducing social movements and social change.
The Pace of Human Change:
Human beings have existed for a vast majority of their history as hunter-gatherers.
Analogy: If humanity is a 50-year-old person, 48.5 years were spent as hunter-gatherers.
Only in the last year and a half (metaphorically) have humans engaged in civilized society.
Industrial society is a very recent phenomenon, approximately the last 18 days (metaphorically) of humanity's existence.
This rapid change, especially in the last 100 years, is profound, transitioning from societies with no concept of personal freedom or civil rights to contemporary discussions around them.
Driving Forces of Change:
Social movements are a primary reason society changes so rapidly.
Technology also plays a crucial role in social change and in the emergence or non-emergence of social movements.
These phenomena are highly interconnected.
Non-Judgmental Approach: It's essential to assess the impact of social movements without ideological or value judgments, even when personal feelings might be involved.
The Context of Globalization
Understanding Contemporary Movements: Many contemporary social movements, especially the most impactful ones, are best understood within the context of globalization, sometimes even as a backlash against it.
Globalization: A Complex Process:
Definition: A long and complex process of integration and intensification, resisting simplistic explanations.
Historical Origins: Some trace it back 2,000 years (Silk Road, Roman Empire-China connection), others to the Industrial Revolution.
Newer Phase: The most recent phase began after World War II, driven by technological advancements leading to the "information age."
This includes the digital revolution, computers, satellites, and the Internet.
Manifestations: This phase saw an seemingly unstoppable process of global trade, mass migration, and transnational media networks.
The Slowdown and Backlash: Globalization's apparent "unstoppability" began to slow around the 2008 Global Financial Crisis.
Critiques, previously present, "exploded" post-2008.
Example: Brexit: A prominent backlash against globalization, where UK citizens sought to leave the European Union to regain national sovereignty.
Anti-Globalization Ideas
Diverse Critiques:
Left-Wing Arguments: Emerged earlier (1990s, e.g., "We are the 99\%" movement).
Core Idea: Globalization as "capitalism on steroids."
Accusations: Domination by global economic elites, multinational corporations free from nation-state control, leading to environmental degradation, deteriorating working conditions, and increasing inequalities.
Nationalism: In some contexts (e.g., South America), extreme left-wing movements can be nationalistic, distinct from European historical associations of nationalism with the right.
Right-Wing Arguments: Became louder later (late 1990s and increasingly prominent now).
Similarities: Also criticize rising inequalities and deteriorating working conditions, but often frame these within a nation-state context.
Unique Angle: Focus on the weakening of national culture or ethnicity.
Examples: "Great replacement theory," the idea that global economic elites weaken patriotism.
Shared Scapegoat: Both left and right critiques often blame "global economic elites" for their respective concerns.
Globalization's Economic Impact and Inequality
Complex Interrelation: Economics, sociology, and politics are deeply interwoven, and there's no single "right" view on globalization's impact.
Positive Economic Outcomes:
Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction: Research indicates globalization is associated with economic growth and people emerging from poverty in many regions.
Example (South and Southeast Asia): The proportion of people below the poverty threshold decreased from approximately 70\% in 1980 to 10\% in 2015.
Mechanism: Western countries moving manufacturing to regions like China, India, and Southeast Asia.
Benefits: Associated with massive improvements in health, life expectancy, and education in these developing countries.
Negative Economic Outcomes (Western Countries):
Rising Inequality: Particularly in Western nations (Europe, North America, Australia).
Impact on Middle/Lower Classes: These classes were most negatively affected as manufacturing jobs moved overseas.
Declining Conditions: In 1980, the low and middle classes in Western countries were generally better off than in 2015, experiencing significant loss of income, social security, and job security.
Backlash Drivers: These declining conditions among Western middle and lower classes largely fuel the anti-globalization backlash.
Example: Donald Trump's "Make America Great Again" slogan reflects a desire to return to perceived better conditions of earlier decades.
Note: While diminishing wealth and inequality play a role, they are not the sole triggers for social movements; other factors are often involved.
What are Social Movements? Definitions and Examples
Defining Social Movements: A complex question, best approached through examples and theoretical frameworks.
Examples of Social Movements:
Black Lives Matter (BLM):
Nature: Global, decentralized movement.
Continuity: A continuation of older movements like the US Civil Rights Movement.
Origin/Spread: Born in the US, spread globally.
Focus: Addressing racism, discrimination, and inequality experienced by Black people.
Anti-Vaccination and Anti-Lockdown Movements (COVID-19 Pandemic):
Context: Protests started globally in early 2020 against public health policies.
Organization: Largely organized online, but with significant street protests.
Overlap: Often involve the same individuals across different agendas (e.g., anti-trans, anti-immigrant), indicating shared motivations despite varied targets.
Anti-War Movements:
Iraq War (2002-2003): Massive global protests against US invasion, but ultimately unsuccessful in preventing the war.
Vietnam War: A huge social movement in the US pushing for withdrawal.
Success: Partially successful, contributing to a shift in public perception and influencing the administration's decision to withdraw.
Reactionary Movements: Movements that oppose progressive change or seek to maintain the status quo.
Pro-Life / Anti-Abortion Movement: Seeks to reverse or prevent changes in abortion legislation.
Second Amendment Movement (US): Aims to maintain existing gun laws and oppose stricter gun control.
Example: Charlie Kirk and the Turning Point movement, representing a powerful reactionary social movement.
Commonalities Among Movements (Theories):
Reaction to Perceived Threat: Many movements emerge in response to a perceived threat (economic, cultural, etc.).
Role of Emotions: Manuel Castells (Spanish sociologist) highlights emotions as a key element, not just rational decisions (e.g., feelings of injustice, anger).
Critiquing Political Institutions: Castells argues movements critique political institutions, accusing elites (government or otherwise) of not serving the interests of "the people" but rather their own interests or money. He condenses this critique into the word "corruption" (not just bribes, but failure to represent popular interests).
Alain Touraine's Definition (French sociologist):
Social movements are a special type of conflict: A competition between opposing actors for achieving power and taking control of social change.
Key Assumptions:
Not mere expressions of the system (e.g., against determinist theories like alienation or anomie).
Movements are agents of conflict.
Social actors must have clearly defined goals (e.g., ending a war, achieving independence) to be considered a social movement.
Repertoires of Contention (Charles Tilly) (American sociologist):
Social movements' actions (repertoires) differ across historical periods due to varying opportunities and societal norms for expressing political aims.
Example: The French Revolution was incredibly violent because violence was more accepted in that era (public executions, harsh treatment by the monarchy) compared to modern movements with other means of expression.
Triggers and Dynamics of Social Movements
Emotions and Communication are Key (Castells):
Social movements are fundamentally rooted in emotions, not purely rational choices.
Emotions are triggered and spread through communications.
Evolution of Communication and Movements:
Late 19th/Early 20th Century (Communist/Union/Socialist Movements): Spread via leaflets, small group speeches.
Mass Media Era: Movements sought access to TV, radio.
Internet Era: Enabled decentralized, global social movements.
Communication technologies shape the form and reach of social movements.
Why Do Most People Not Rebel?
Simple threats (economic conditions, perceived immigration threat) are insufficient to trigger movements consistently.
History shows countless examples of oppressed people living in extreme inequality who did not rebel.
The Missing Link: The explanation lies in the mix of emotions and technology.
Perception and Sharing: Social movements emerge when there is a shared perception of inequality or oppression, and critically, the ability to share these emotions through media.
Counter-Intuitive Examples (Castells):
Brazil (2000s): Experienced good economic conditions and reduced inequality, yet a major anti-globalization movement emerged.
Turkey (2013 Gezi Park Protests): Economic growth and reduced inequality, yet a significant anti-authoritarian movement arose.
Conclusion: It's not just the objective conditions but the shared perception of something being wrong, facilitated by communication, that mobilizes people. Without the means to share perceptions and emotions (e.g., North Korea's obscured communication, fear of spies, no internet), movements cannot emerge, even under extreme oppression.
How Social Movements Affect Political Change
Social movements can influence political change through various mechanisms.
1. Changing the Public Agenda (Sidney Tarrow, Castells):
Mechanism: Social movements introduce new issues or prioritize existing ones in public opinion.
Voter Behavior: Voters simplify choices by prioritizing 2-3 key issues (e.g., immigration/security for right-wing, climate change/inequality for left-wing).
Impact: By influencing which issues are seen as important, movements can shift the entire political game, impacting electoral outcomes.
Example (Vietnam War): Movements prioritized the horrors of the war and American casualties, setting the agenda for voters and influencing policy.
Indirect Nature: This impact is often indirect, as "gatekeepers" (journalists, political parties) mediate which issues reach policymakers.
2. Direct Ways to Impact Political Change (Donatella Della Porta):
Referendums:
Brexit: A successful example of a grassroots movement influencing political decision-making, even if politicians later co-opted it.
Scottish Independence Referendum: An unsuccessful example, indicating that direct action doesn't always guarantee success.
Constitutional Campaigns: Movements can push for rewriting national constitutions.
Iceland (2010-2013): An attempt where citizens from all backgrounds joined a constitutional assembly to rewrite basic rules, though the new constitution was ultimately ruled against by the Supreme Court.
Chile (2021-2023): Another attempt that involved a new constitution, which was not approved by referendum.
Influencing Leadership Selection:
Example (Gabriel Boric, Chile): As a student union leader, he led massive protests in 2019; his movement's strength propelled him to become a presidential candidate, and he ultimately won the election, becoming President of Chile.
Success of Movements: The outcome of social movements is highly variable and context-dependent.
Examples of Success: The Russian Revolution, the French Revolution (to an extent).
Examples of Failure: Many movements are crushed.
Factors Governing Success: Often depends on resources, power dynamics, and the capacity for organized action, potentially even involving armed conflict (e.g., "how many guns you have, how well can you shoot").
There is no guarantee of success, and outcomes can be unpredictable.