AMSCO Unit 6 notes

Topic 6.1: Contextualizing Period 6

Learning Objectives

• Learning Objective 1: Explain the historical context for the rise of industrial capitalism in the United States during the period from 1865 to 1898.

• Learning Objective 2: Explain a historical context for the increased international and internal migration in the United States during the period from 1865 to 1898.

Rise of Industrial Capitalism

• Between the end of the Civil War in 1865 and the start of the Spanish-American War in 1898, the United States emerged as the world’s largest economy.

• The expansion of railroads, exceeding 45,000 miles per decade, surpassed that of other countries.

• This era, referred to as the “Gilded Age,” was characterized by

  • Captains of Industry: Individuals who controlled large corporations.

  • Fortunes: Enormous wealth amassed by industrialists.

  • Lifestyles: Living in opulent, European-style palaces.

Economic Changes

• Large-scale industries such as railroads, steel mills, and mining required significant capital investment.

  • Wealthy Europeans and affluent Americans financed industry through stock and bond sales.

• Major financial centers based in New York City supported economic advancement with

  • Large banks and stock exchanges

  • Influential figures like the Astors and Vanderbilts.

• Advances in technology fostered productivity, enhancing

  • Steel production, contributing to lower costs and higher strength.

  • Between 1860 and 1890, there were 440,000 new patents, sparking a second industrial revolution with electric and oil technologies.

• Industries relied on expanding markets facilitated by

  • Railroads

  • Steamships

  • Communication networks including telegraphs, cables, and telephones (e.g., expedited delivery of products from Chicago’s meatpacking houses to consumers).

• American industries began seeking international markets in

  • Europe

  • Latin America

  • Asia

Political Changes

• Pro-growth government policies favored businesses, while generally neglecting worker and farmer welfare.

  • These included

  • Protection of property rights

  • Lack of business regulation

  • High tariffs favoring domestic manufacturers

  • Land grants and loans to subsidize railroads.

• The government’s inaction on social issues spurred debates over its role in the economy;

  • Economic instability was evidenced by financial panics, depressions, and wealth inequities.

Migration and Urbanization

• Urban industrial expansion and westward movement attracted migrants from

  • Rural America

  • Abroad, especially during the late 1800s, with large waves of "new" immigrants from

  • Southern and Eastern Europe

  • Asia.

• Migration contributed to economic prosperity and cultural diversity yet also engendered

  • Conflict with native populations

  • Threats to their existence.

• Industrialization rapidly accelerated urban development,

  • often manifesting in unregulated growth and unsanitary conditions.

• Despite challenges such as low wages, inadequate housing, and overcrowding, an emerging middle class experienced greater leisure and cultural enrichment.

• Intellectual movements during this time reflected support and dissent regarding laissez-faire capitalism and societal norms.

Reform Efforts

• Reform movements formed in response to the challenges of the era, focusing on

  • Economic and political reforms from workers and farmers.

  • Protests against unfair railroad practices and banking systems by farm organizations.

  • Workers advocating for increased wages and union rights.

  • Women's suffrage campaigns and temperance movements.

• Though many early reform movements initially faltered, they provided foundational ideas for future 20th-century reforms.

Analyze the Context

1. Explain a historical context for the rise of industrial capitalism in the United States during the period from 1865 to 1898.

2. Explain a historical context for the increased international and internal migration in the United States during the period from 1865 to 1898.

Landmark Events: 1850–1900

• 1860:

• 1869: Completion of first transcontinental railroad.

• 1870:

• 1876: Custer defeated at the Battle of Little Big Horn.

• 1882: Congress bans immigration from China.

• 1886: Statue of Liberty opens.

• 1890: John D. Rockefeller founds Standard Oil.

• 1893: Pullman railroad car strike; Thomas Edison opens his Menlo Park Laboratory.

• 1896: Supreme Court’s Plessy v. Ferguson decision approving segregation.

Topic 6.2: Westward Expansion: Economic Development

Learning Objective

• Explain the causes and effects of the settlement of the West from 1877 to 1898.

Transcontinental Railroads

• The construction of railroads significantly influenced the settlement of the western United States after 1865.

• Facilitated by land grants and loans, two railroad companies—The

  • Union Pacific Railroad (starting in Omaha, Nebraska)

  • Central Pacific Railroad (beginning in Sacramento, California)

  • These railroads connected America, promoting settlement across Great Plains and integrating it with the eastern market.

• The two lines met at Promontory Point, Utah on May 10, 1869, symbolizing the union of both coasts with a commemorative golden spike.

Additional Routes and Their Economic Impact

• Completed by 1883, more transcontinental routes connected major American cities, including

  • Southern Pacific

  • Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe

  • Northern Pacific

  • Great Northern

• Railroads promoted the growth of towns and cities while facilitating migration for miners, ranchers, and farmers leading to increased settlement.

Negative Effects of Railroad Expansion

• Railroads brought significant changes but also adverse consequences:

  • Many were unprofitable, built without proper market demand.

  • Intense competition for resources caused ecological damage, including buffalo extinction and environmental degradation. - Native Americans subsequently faced significant cultural and human losses.

Settlement of the Last West

• Prior to 1860, lands in the Great Plains were viewed as barren.

• Post-1865 transformations included

  • Buffalo eradication, ranching, homesteading, and rail transportation led to significant population growth and urbanization.

• States such as

  • Nebraska (1867)

  • Montana (1889)

  • Wyoming (1890)

  • Others joined the Union as territories diminished.

The Mining Frontier

• Initial mining prompted people to migrate towards mineral-rich lands.

• Individual prospectors became miners, later company-led operations took over with advanced mining technology.

• Famous strikes (e.g., Comstock Lode) and mining booms changed demographics and accelerated settlement.

Cattle Frontier

• Post-Civil War, vast grasslands offered significant potential for lucrative cattle ranching, supported by railroads enabling efficient transport of cattle to eastern markets.

• Cow towns emerged to support the cattle industry, with ranching extending across the plains.

The Decline of the Cattle Drives

• Overgrazing, severe weather, and increased ranching setups alongside settlements curbed traditional cattle drives.

• This led to a transition from open range to corporate ranching, yielding changes in meat production—and eventually the establishment of an enduring cowboy image.

The Farming Frontier

• Homestead Acts lured many families into farming by offering land for settlement, yet many problems arose related to overproduction, crop prices, and ecological challenges.

• Failures ultimately led farmers to organize and advocate for changes in economic practices and policies.

Farmers Organize

• Farmers responded to economic challenges by creating alliances and cooperatives in the late 19th century, laying grounds for future political movements like the Populists.

Key Terms by Theme

• Western Settlement (MIG): transcontinental railroads, Great Plains, Great American Desert, buffalo herds.

• Western Development (MIG): vaqueros, longhorn cattle, cattle drives, barbed wire.

• Farm Protest Movements (PCE): cash crops, markets, deflation, middlemen, National Grange Movement, cooperatives, Granger laws, Munn v. Illinois, Ocala Platform.

Topic 6.3: Westward Expansion: Social and Cultural Development

Learning Objective

• Explain the causes and effects of the settlement of the West from 1877 to 1898.

The Closing of the Frontier

• The term "frontier" changed as land was increasingly populated and shaped by settlers.

• This culminated in a broader conversation about how the removal of the frontier would affect American society.

Turner’s Frontier Thesis

• Proposed by Frederick Jackson Turner, it argued the frontier as vital to the development of American democracy, shaped by individualism, yet explicitly called attention to wastefulness of natural resources.

Role of Towns and Cities

• Alternative perspectives challenge traditional view of the frontier development; cities were central to the process, conflicted with ideals of rural settlement.

American Indians in the West

• Numerous Indigenous tribes occupied the West and adapted to varied ecologies.

• Conflict intensified in the late 1800s due to white encroachment.

Indian Wars

• U.S. military actions against Native tribes led to impoverished and diminished communities, facilitated through treaties and reservations.

Ghost Dancers and Wounded Knee

• Final attempts at preserving Native cultures resulted in violent military responses, leading to high casualties at Wounded Knee, marking closure on Native resistance.

Assimilation Efforts

• Advocacy for assimilation surfaced, typified by policies such as the Dawes Severalty Act aiming to integrate Native Americans into the dominant culture.

  • Resulting in significant land loss and adverse social outcomes.

Social and Cultural Diversity

• The influx of various ethnic groups, including Mexican Americans and immigrants affected the social fabric, with varied expressions of cultural persistence and adaptation.

Conservation Movement

• Awareness and advocacy for preserving nature emerged amidst concerns of deforestation from industrial practices, leading to the founding of national parks and protection initiatives.

Key Terms by Theme

• Frontier Closing (MIG): Frederick Jackson Turner, “The Significance of the Frontier in American History” (1893).

• American Indians (MIG): Little Big Horn, Ghost Dance movement, assimilationists, Helen Hunt Jackson, Dawes Act of 1887, Indian Reorganization Act.

• Mexican Americans (MIG): Santa Fe Trail.

• Conservation (GEO): deforestation, Yosemite, Yellowstone, Forest Reserve Act of 1891, Forest Management Act of 1897, conservationists, preservationists, John Muir, Sierra Club.

Topic 6.4: The New South

Learning Objective

• Explain how various factors contributed to continuity and change in the New South from 1877 to 1898.

Growth of Industry

• The “New South” was promoted significantly by leaders like Henry Grady, stressing economic diversity and industrial growth.

• Cities underwent transformation with developments in industries focused on

  • Steel (Birmingham)

  • Lumber (Memphis)

  • Tobacco (Richmond)

• Yet challenges persisted as reliance on Northern investments limited economic independence.

Poverty and Agriculture

• The South’s predominantly agricultural system trapped a majority in tenant farming and sharecropping, perpetuating a cycle of poverty.

Attempts at Organization

• With rising tensions, farmers organized but were often thwarted by powerful elite control and racial divides.

Segregation and Racial Inequalities

• Following Reconstruction, Jim Crow laws and systemic segregation marginalized African Americans.

Responses to Oppression

• Civil rights movements emerged, advocating for improved living and working conditions through various means of activism.

Relations with Industrialization

• Key events highlight responses to economic progress and conflicts regarding the power dynamics within the evolving South.

Key Terms by Theme

• Southern Development (WXT): “New South,” Henry Grady, Birmingham, Memphis, Richmond (tobacco).

• Racial Discrimination (MIG, POL): White supremacists, Civil Rights Cases; Jim Crow laws.

Topic 6.5: Technological Innovation

Learning Objective

• Explain the effects of technological advances in the development of the United States over time.

Inventions and Travel

• Communication and transport innovation shaped the economy.

• Key inventions included

  • Telegraph by Samuel Morse (1844)

  • Transatlantic cable (Cyrus Field, 1866) for global communication.

Industrial Advancement

• Introduction of consumer products and increased manufacturing capabilities transformed urban experiences in the U.S.

  • Noteworthy inventions: telephone (Bell), typewriter, adding machine, Kodak camera, etc.

The Steel Industry

• The rise of steel production was initiated through the Bessemer process, elevating the heavy industry.

Edison's Influence

• Thomas Edison’s Menlo Park lab pioneered innovations, emphasizing teamwork in developing technologies, notably the electric light

• Westinghouse’s advancements revolutionized electricity use in public services.

Growth of Cities and Construction

• Urban landscapes redefined as a result of technology advancements in transportation, leading to the emergence of skyscrapers aided by elevator innovations.

Consumer Economy

• Mass production resulted in an increased economy of scale; influenced purchasing habits, marketing methodologies, and consumer culture growth.

Key Terms by Theme

• Technology (WXT): transatlantic cable, telephone, electric power, electric light.

• Marketing Innovations (WXT): R. H. Macy, mail-order companies, packaged foods.

Topic 6.6: The Rise of Industrial Capitalism

Learning Objective

• Explain the socioeconomic continuities and changes associated with the growth of industrial capitalism from 1865 to 1898.

Economic Growth

• Post-Civil War, advancements in management and technology led to an unprecedented scaling of industries exemplified in railroads, which became the first substantial big business with significant support from the federal government.

  • Rail networks expanded from 35,000 miles in 1865 to 193,000 miles in 1900.

Business Practices

• Strategies including consolidation and integrating ownership arose to streamline operations, particularly in the rail, steel, and oil industries.

  • Prominent figures: Vanderbilt in railroads, Carnegie in steel, and Rockefeller in oil

Monopoly and Regulation

• Public concerns over corporate power led to petitions for anti-trust legislation although initial attempts by the Sherman Anti-Trust Act failed to curb monopolies.

Laissez-Faire Economics

• Dominant economic perspectives rejected governmental involvement, bowing to concepts rooted in laissez-faire doctrine and Social Darwinism, which reinforced social inequality and justified the systemic gap between the wealthy and the working class.

Wealth Distribution

• The late 19th century saw the richest 10% acquire the majority of national wealth, creating a social divide often romanticized by narratives of self-made success that omitted systemic barriers.

Expansion Abroad

• Economic interests abroad motivated policies aimed at resource acquisition and trade expansion; the U.S. sought dominance worldwide post-1898 through foreign policies favoring business growth.

Key Terms by Theme

• Business of Railroads (WXT): the nation’s first big business, American Railroad Association, time zones, consolidation, bankruptcy.

• Large Scale Industry (WXT): Andrew Carnegie, United States Steel, John D. Rockefeller.

• Capitalism (CUL): laissez-faire, Social Darwinism, concentration of wealth.

Topic 6.7: Labor in the Gilded Age

Learning Objective

• Explain the socioeconomic continuities and changes associated with the growth of industrial capitalism from 1865 to 1898.

Working Conditions and Discontent

• Industrial labor was characterized by low wages and grueling hours (often 10 hours a day for six days).

• Workers typically survived on wages barely above subsistence level.

Labor Movements

• The oppressive environment resulted in high turnover rates in factories alongside rising labor protests against management’s harsh conditions.

• Significant labor conflicts emerged by the late 19th century.

  • Great Railroad Strike of 1877 marked a significant flare-up of tensions between capital and labor.

Attempts to Organize

• Various national unions strived to unite the labor force but were often dismantled by companies and legal mechanisms. Prominent groups included

  • National Labor Union, Knights of Labor, and American Federation of Labor (AFL) focusing on immediate economic goals.

Major Strikes

• Events like the Homestead Strike and Pullman Strike signified escalating tensions and unresolved disputes between labor and management, reflecting broader industrial struggles.

Key Terms by Theme

• Organized Labor (WXT): iron law of wages, wage earners, collective bargaining.

Topic 6.8: Immigration and Migration in the Gilded Age

Learning Objective

• Explain how cultural and economic factors affected migration patterns over time.

Patterns of Immigration

• Significant waves of immigrants surged into the U.S. with numbers from Europe particularly increasing during pivotal economic moments.

• The “push” and “pull” factors propelled migrants, with adverse conditions in Europe juxtaposed against opportunity in America promoting the influx.

Cultural Shifts

• With a backdrop of increasing urbanization, millions flocked to cities, causing profound demographic changes particularly in metropolises like Chicago and New York, often leading to the establishment of ethnic neighborhoods.

Responses to Immigration

• Various factions reacted to immigration—some with support, others aiming for restrictions based on economic fears, nativism, and cultural prejudice leading to exclusion laws such as the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882.

Key Terms by Theme

• Immigration (MIG): pushes, pulls, old/new immigrants, Chinese Exclusion Act.

Topic 6.9: Responses to Immigration in the Gilded Age

Learning Objective

• Explain the various responses to immigration in the period over time.

Opposition to Immigration

• Economic and cultural anxieties rooted dislike towards immigrants who were believed to be diluting the Anglo identity leading to organized nativist sentiments.

Legislative Restrictions

• Early immigration restrictions primarily focused on Chinese laborers; others emerged as a response to the increasing popularity of anti-immigrant sentiment.

Political and Social Machines

• Political entities in cities sought to harness votes from newly arrived immigrants, consequently creating complex political machines centered on aiding their integration into American society.

Settlement Houses

• Initiatives such as Jane Addams's Hull House sought to improve the living conditions of immigrants promptly with education and healthcare services.

Key Terms by Theme

• Responses to Immigration (MIG): Statue of Liberty, American Protective Association, Chinese Exclusion Act.

Topic 6.10: Development of the Middle Class

Learning Objective

• Explain the causes of increased economic opportunity and its effects on society.

Economic Growth

• Industrial expansion yielded new professions predominantly in urban areas, thereby cultivating a broader middle class.

Social Changes

• Leisure time increased for the burgeoning class, shifting the cultural landscape toward more accessible leisure activities promoting mass entertainment.

Patterns in Housing

• Middle-class families migrated toward suburbs, seeking refuge from urban poverty while elevating living standards.

Key Terms by Theme

• Growth of the Middle Class (SOC): expanding middle class, white-collar workers, “Gospel of Wealth.”

Topic 6.11: Reform in the Gilded Age

Learning Objective

• Explain how different reform movements responded to the rise of industrial capitalism in the Gilded Age.

Awakening of Reform

• Rising inequalities and social issues inspired numerous movements led by educated middle-class reformers aiming to address socioeconomic woes.

Literary Responses

• Authors like Henry George and Edward Bellamy voiced critiques of industrialization, informing the public discourse around regulation and inequality.

Religious Reform

• The Social Gospel and various faith-based initiatives strove to rectify societal disparities by linking religious tenets to civic action.

Settlement Houses

• Social reformers established settlement houses to combat poverty and provide essential services to immigrant families.

Major Themes

• Reform movements were both influential and integral in shaping future policies and societal norms, establishing the foundation for increased government involvement in social issues.

Key Terms by Theme

• Reformers (SOC): Henry George, Edward Bellamy, Social Gospel, Jane Addams.

Topic 6.12: Role of Government in the Gilded Age

Learning Objective

• Explain the continuities and changes in the role of the government in the U.S. economy.

Government Actions

• Despite reluctance to regulate businesses, government actively capitalized industries through subsidies and land grants, particularly assisting railroads.

Interstate Commerce Regulation

• The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 marked the first federal attempt to regulate interstate trade, establishing the ICC (Interstate Commerce Commission).

Antitrust Legislation

• Fear of monopolistic practices spurred federal action leading to the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, though it faced legal limitations until reformed in the Progressive Era.

Economic Policies

• Questions around monetary policy, including gold vs. silver standards, dominated political discourse during economic downturns, leading to significant political changes.

Key Terms by Theme

• Role of Government (PCE): federal land grants, Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, Sherman Antitrust Act.

Topic 6.13: Politics in the Gilded Age

Learning Objective

• Explain the similarities and differences between the political parties during the Gilded Age.

Political Stalemate

• The period is noted for political inactivity and stagnation, with both major parties avoiding significant policy stances.

Party Dynamics

• Republicans maintained dominance in the North, while Democrats catered largely to Southern voters and immigrants in urban areas, resulting in regional divides.

Rise of Populism

• Growing discontent led to the emergence of the Populist Party, promoting widespread reforms.

Key Terms by Theme

• Republican Party (PCE): “bloody shirt,” pro-business.

• Democratic Party (PCE): “solid South,” state’s rights.

Topic 6.14: Continuity and Change

Learning Objective

• Explain the extent to which industrialization brought changes from 1865 to 1898.

Continuities and Changes

• Several factors, including industrialization’s economic impacts on migration and cultural shifts, illustrate dramatic changes associated with the period.