The United States and the First World War
The American Experience in the War
The First World War had catastrophic consequences for Europe, causing immense loss of life and societal upheaval.
Germany: 2 million soldier deaths
Russia: 1.7 million soldier deaths
France: 1.4 million soldier deaths
Britain: 900,000 soldier deaths
Centuries of political and social traditions and practices destroyed.
In contrast, the United States did not suffer the same drastic results from the war.
Total soldier deaths: 110,000 (with half attributed to disease).
Economically, the war propelled the U.S. to unprecedented levels of prosperity.
Diplomatically, the U.S. emerged as the unquestioned global superpower after the war.
However, the United States did face considerable challenges as a result of the war.
Social unity in the country was harmed, leading to the effective end of the Progressive Era.
U.S. efforts to shape a lasting international peace proved unsuccessful.
The Causes of the War
The war was characterized by the opposition of two major alliances:
Triple Entente: Comprising Britain, France, and Russia.
Triple Alliance: Comprising Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.
Tensions escalated largely due to:
The Anglo-German naval rivalry that developed before the war.
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, which is often cited as a catalyst for the war.
A limited conflict against Serbia transformed into a full-scale European War following Russia's backing of Serbia and Germany's backing of Austria-Hungary.
Germany's implementation of the Schlieffen Plan led to an attack on France.
By the end of 1914, all major European countries were engulfed in war.
Was America "Neutral"?
President Woodrow Wilson’s declaration of neutrality was largely contradicted by subsequent actions.
Despite some support for the Triple Alliance among segments of German-American and Irish-American populations, a majority of Americans sympathized with England and France.
Propaganda that emphasized German atrocities in Belgium fueled public support for the Allies.
Wilson did not challenge the British naval blockade of Germany, which facilitated increased trade with England and France.
War orders from England and France surged from $824 million in 1914 to $3.2 billion in 1916.
The German submarine attacks, particularly the sinking of the Lusitania on May 7, 1915, highlighted Germany as primarily responsible for escalating tensions.
1,200 lives were lost in this disaster.
Although the ship was carrying arms for the Allies, the U.S. issued a strong diplomatic note to Germany, resulting in Germany backing down.
In 1915, Wilson allocated $500 million for a build-up of the United States armed forces.
Despite a clear alignment with the Allies, Wilson won the 1916 federal election by promoting a platform of peace and preparedness.
American Entrance into the War
Following the 1916 election, Wilson began preparing for U.S. involvement.
The announcement of Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare violated the Sussex pledge of 1916, which had assured no attacks on merchant shipping.
Wilson framed U.S. participation as an opportunity to spread Progressive ideals.
His "Peace without Victory" speech (January 1917) emphasized:
Self-determination for all nations.
Freedom of the seas.
Avoidance of entangling alliances.
The Zimmermann Telegram in February 1917 revealed Germany's attempt to entice Mexico to join the war in exchange for territory loss from the U.S. (from Texas to California).
The Russian Revolution in March 1917 removed the tsarist regime and thus aligned U.S. interests against an autocratic government.
Wilson's Cabinet reached a consensus for war on March 20, 1917. He pushed for a war declaration in a speech to Congress on April 2, 1917, emphasizing:
Making the world safe for democracy.
The war resolution passed on April 6, 1917, with only 50 Representatives and six Senators voting against it.
The US Home Front, 1917-1918
Financing the war incurred substantial expenses.
The U.S. government expended $32 billion on war expenses and loaned an additional $10 billion to Allied nations.
Liberty Bonds produced $23 billion of the necessary funds, with the remainder being covered by increases in corporate and income taxes.
The Federal Government aimed for centralized production coordination across several sectors:
The Railway War Board was responsible for managing the national railway system.
The Fuel Administration sought to boost coal supply.
The Food Administration endeavored to increase food output and promoted voluntary reductions in consumption.
The War Industries Board, led by Wall Street financier Bernard Baruch, coordinated industrial military supply production.
Worked closely with the business community, although not strictly for efficiency.
Efforts to maintain social unity led to the adoption of several repressive measures.
The Committee on Public Information (CPI) undertook a vigorous propaganda campaign, encouraging self-censorship in newspapers.
The Espionage Act of 1917 imposed significant fines for anyone obstructing the war effort, allowing for mail censorship by the Postmaster-General.
The Sedition Act of 1918 made public expressions opposing the war illegal, resulting in the conviction of Eugene V. Debs, a Socialist Party member, who received a ten-year jail sentence in 1918.
Citizen groups mobilized to promote patriotic sentiments:
The American Protective League grew to 250,000 members by 1918.
German-Americans faced discrimination, with many expelled from universities and essential jobs.
Vigilante groups often assaulted German citizens, resulting in lynching incidents, such as a notable case in Illinois in 1918.
American Military Forces in the War
The U.S. Navy collaborated with the British Royal Navy to mitigate the effects of the German submarine campaign.
Allied ship losses declined significantly, from 900,000 tons in April 1917 to just 112,000 tons by October 1918.
U.S. troops became essential in France as the war continued past the Russian exit following its revolution in November 1917, which resulted in Russia withdrawing from the conflict in March 1918.
The U.S. Army had to be expanded due to inadequate levels, leading to the:
Selective Service Act of May 1917, which drafted three million men into service, adding to two million volunteers.
The American Expeditionary Force (AEF), commanded by General John J. Pershing, initially engaged in minor actions before October 1917.
The force played a crucial role in repelling the German Spring Offensive northeast of Paris in June 1918.
By July 1918, one million AEF troops were stationed in France.
The AEF took part in significant Allied offensives in late September 1918.
The First World War concluded with Germany signing the Armistice on November 11, 1918.