Social Psychology and Personality Study Guide Notes
Attribution Theory
How we attribute feelings to people to understand their behavior.
Explains the causes of behaviors and events.
Dispositional: Internal factors like intelligence and personality.
Situational: External factors like social pressures.
Dispositional Example: "I studied for a test, so I did well."
Situational Example: "Sitting with a group so others think I am cool."
Locus of Control
Who we think is more in control of our lives.
Internal: Personal decisions, efforts, abilities, d hd ardhanan work.
External: Fate, luck, others, circumstances.
Fundamental Attribution Error
Overemphasizing others’ disposition, underestimating situational factors.
Judging others based on internal factors rather than external factors.
Example: Assuming a coworker is lazy for being late instead of considering traffic.
Self-Serving Bias
Thinking we are the solution, and others are the problem.
Success = our doing, failure = external factors.
Example: Getting an A because of studying, failing because the test was hard.
Actor/Observer Bias
How we perceive others versus ourselves.
Blaming the pavement for oneself falling but blaming others for falling.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Expectations lead to fulfillment.
Beliefs influence behavior, making expectations come true.
Example: Believing you are bad at history, not studying, failing, reinforcing the belief.
Social Comparison
Evaluating ourselves compared to others.
Evaluating ourselves based on others' actions.
Example: Watching a professional athlete and feeling inadequate.
Relative Deprivation
Feeling deprived compared to others.
Comparing ourselves to others and feeling worse.
Example: Comparing oneself and thinking they are worse.
Mere Exposure Effect
Repeated exposure to a stimulus increases enjoyment.
Example: Listening to a gong repeatedly until liking it or not caring.
Person Perception
Forming impressions of ourselves and others.
Based on behaviors, perceived traits, and physical characteristics.
Example: Assuming a new coworker is friendly because they are happy.
Social Facilitation
Improved performance in front of an audience.
Example: Scoring the final shot at a soccer game due to the crowd.
Attitude Formation & Change
Attitude: Feelings influenced by beliefs that predispose responses to objects, people, and events.
Belief Perseverance
Holding onto beliefs even when proven wrong (Confirmation Bias).
Example: Staying mad at a friend despite others saying you are wrong.
Cognitive Dissonance
Psychological discomfort from inconsistent beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.
Example: Believing smoking is bad but still smoking.
Reward Theory of Attraction
We like spending time with those who make us feel good.
Passionate Love
Fueled by physical attraction and hormones (Testosterone/estrogen).
Honeymoon or hook-up phase.
Companionate Love
Driven by deeper attraction with oxytocin and self-disclosure, positive support.
Lifelong partner.
Proximity
The more time spent with someone, the more attraction.
Men (attraction): Young, fertile.
Women (attraction): Healthy, fertile, mature, dominant.
Attractiveness: Average-sized, symmetrical facial features.
Similarity: Shared interests and beliefs increase attraction.
Aggression
Anti-social: Not following social norms.
Frustration-Aggression Principle
Frustration leads to anger and then aggression.
Social Script
Behaviors culture deems acceptable.
Stereotype
False assumptions or generalized beliefs about people.
Prejudice: Hateful attitude.
Discrimination: Hateful actions.
Scapegoat Theory
Blaming problems on those who don’t have them.
Example: The Holocaust with Jews.
Other Race Effect
Better at recognizing people of our own race.
Biases
Implicit: Unconscious microaggressions, innate and automatic.
Immediately forming an idea about someone.
Explicit: Conscious overt sexism, racism, ageism, etc.
Outwardly expressing bias.
The Social Situation
Social Norms
Expected behaviors in social settings.
Expectations: Taking notes.
Roles: Being a student.
Zimbardo Prison Experiment
Persuasions
Feelings influenced by beliefs.
Central Route to Persuasion
Using facts, data, logic, and evidence.
Peripheral Route to Persuasion
Using lights, humor, colors, or celebrities.
Halo Effect
Associating a product with the person advertising it.
Example: Using Old Spice to be like Terry Cruz.
Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon
Gradually asking for more.
Example: Asking for $2 then asking for $100.
Door-in-the-Face Phenomenon
Asking for a lot, getting rejected, then asking for less.
Example: Asking to go to Taiwan, then asking for $20.
Conformity and Obedience
Conformity
Adjusting behavior to fit a group standard.
Obedience
Following orders due to authority, even harmful ones.
Example: Obedience during the Holocaust.
Normative Social Influence
Conforming to gain approval.
Example: Wanting social media followers.
Informational Social Influence
Conforming because you believe others are informed.
Example: Following senior students to find classes.
Social Influence
Behavior influenced by social situations and others.
Example: Wearing similar clothes as friends.
Chameleon Effect
Unconsciously mirroring others to empathize.
Example: Mimicking another person's movements in a room.
Us vs. Them Mentality
Dividing people into in-groups and out-groups.
Favoritism towards in-group, hostility towards out-group.
Example: Regular employees versus management.
Just-World Phenomenon
Unconsciously believing the world is just.
Good is rewarded, evil is punished.
Example: Believing you deserved something bad that happened.
Out-Group Bias
Generalizing everyone outside our group.
Example: Rival sports teams, nationalities, different grades.
In-Group Bias
Thinking everyone in our group is good.
Example: Sports fans or nationalities.
Ethnocentrism
Cultural superiority.
Example: Expecting July 4th fireworks in the UK.
Group Affiliation
Social Norms
Socially accepted interactions.
Individualism: Western world (individual rights).
Collectivism: Asian world (communal rights).
Multiculturalism.
Example: Saying thank you.
Diffusion of Responsibility
Not acting in a group because you assume others will.
Example: Not calling 911 because you think someone else will.
Bystander Effect
Watching and not intervening.
Example: Kitty Genovese murder.
Group Polarization
Beliefs grow stronger with like-minded people.
Building upon similar opinions leads to extremist views.
Example: Political parties.
Group Think
Agreeing to avoid conflict.
Factors: Group cohesion, isolation/conformity, poor leadership, stress.
Example: Banning an ethnic group and everyone follows.
Social Loafing
Giving work to others and not doing your share.
Example: A student slacking on a group project.
Deindividuation
Loss of sense of identity in a group.
Example: Tearing down goalposts after a football game.
False Consensus Effect
Social Trap
Prioritizing self-interest over unity.
Example: Driving alone instead of taking the bus.
Prisoner’s Dilemma
If you betray someone, you are more likely to be betrayed.
Superordinate Goals
Unified disparate groups under a common goal.
Altruism
Psychodynamic & Humanistic Theory of Personality
Humanistic Theory
Self-Esteem: Perception of self-concept.
Self-Efficacy: Ability to set and reach goals (Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development).
Self-Actualization/Self-Transcendence: Desire to reach full potential and connect with oneself.
Unconditional Positive Regard: Acceptance and non-judgment.
Example: A teacher helping a student get an A+.
Self-Actualizing Tendency: Desire to reach full potential.
Example: Trying to be the best at painting.
Psychodynamic Theory
Unconscious processes (Sigmund Freud).
Ego defense mechanisms.
Projective tests.
The Mind
Conscious mind (visible).
Preconscious mind.
Unconscious mind (true self).
Id:
Devil on our shoulder.
Instant gratification.
Superego:
Angel on our shoulder (morality).
Ego
Conscious mind balancing superego and id.
Ego Defense Mechanisms
Repression: Blocking conscious awareness.
Example: Forgetting memories.
Regression: Reverting to childlike behavior.
Example: Throwing a temper tantrum.
Projection: Accusing others of your own feelings.
Example: Saying "You're mad" when you're mad yourself.
Displacement: Redirecting feelings to someone else.
Example: Taking out a bad day on family.
Reaction Formation: Acting the opposite of how you feel.
Example: Acting happy to meet a boyfriend's ex.
Rationalization: Justifying actions.
Example: Making excuses for others instead of yourself.
Denial: Refusing to acknowledge something.
Example: Denying a failing grade.
Sublimation: Redirecting to socially acceptable behavior.
Example: Working out after a friend drops you.
Projective Tests
Rorschach Test
Showing inkblots and asking what people see.
Thematic Apperception Test
Giving a still picture and asking for context.
Traits and Social – Cognitive Theory of Personality
Assessing Personality
Ideal Self: Who we want to be.
Real Self: Who we actually are.
Situational Test: Real-life challenge.
Observations: Observing environment (Social learning theory).
Trait Theory of Personality
Enduring, stable characteristics.
Example: Personality traits at 11 are similar at 20.
Big Five Personalities
Openness to experience: Imaginative.
Conscientiousness: Organized.
Extraversion: Outgoing.
Agreeableness: Soft + Kind.
Neuroticism: Irritability.
Social-Cognitive Theory of Personality (Albert Bandura)
Reciprocal Determinism
Interaction of personal factors, environment, and behavior.
Example: A child acting out in school because they don't like school.
Biopsychosocial Psychology
How biology, social situation, and psychology influence behavior (nature vs. nurture).
Self-Concept
Description + evaluation of oneself.
Example: Who am I?
Motivation
Biopsychosocial variables influence the drive to complete a goal.
Instinct Theory
Natural patterns that influence survival.
Example: Imprinting.
Drive-Reduction Theory
Motivation to reduce drives (sex, hunger, etc.).
Need: Physiological – Food, water, shelter.
Drive: Thirst, hunger, no shelter.
Behavior: Dopamine “reward”.
Homeostasis: Balance.
Example: Hunger disrupting balance.
Arousal Theory
Motivation to seek arousal.
Example: Alert, energetic, excited.
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Optimal arousal level for performance, beyond which performance decreases.
Sensation-Seeking Theory
Needing more arousal to be motivated.
Experience Seeking: Traveling, etc.
Thrill or Adventure-Seeking: Mountains, etc.
Disinhibition: Impulsive behaviors (drugs, graffiti, etc.).
Boredom Susceptibility: Adventurous due to boredom.
Humanistic Theory
Self-Determination Theory
Intrinsic Motivation
Internally motivated (internal factors).
Example: Studying because you like the class.
Extrinsic Motivation
Externally motivated (external factors).
Example: Doing something for financial gain.
Incentive Theory
Acting if there is a reward.
Example: Studying for good grades.
Maslow’s Hierarchical Chart of Needs
Self-actualization, self-esteem, love, belonging, safety + security, physiological needs.
Lewin’s Motivational Conflicts
Choosing between conflicts.
Approach-Approach: Two desirable options (choose 1).
Example: Duke or W&M.
Approach-Avoidance: Options with positive + negative aspects.
Example: Moving to VA from CA or going to MLWGS.
Avoidance-Avoidance: Two undesirable options.
Example: Go to school vs. death.
Social Pressures
Ostracism: In-group/out-group.
Conformity.
Phubbing: Ignoring others while on your phone.
Eating & Belongingness
Ghrelin
Increases hunger.
Leptin
Reduces hunger.
Hypothalamus
regulates hormones.
Food-Based Motivation
The drive that living beings must eat food for survival.
Emotion
James-Lange Theory
Emotions arise from physiological responses to events.
Stimulus, physiological response, then emotion.
Example: Seeing a bear, heart racing, then feeling fear.
Simultaneous Theory
Cannon-Bard Theory: Emotions and physiological reactions occur simultaneously.
Encountering an emotional stimulus causes both a physiological response and emotion at the same time.
Example: Seeing a bear causes increased heart rate and fear at the same time.
Cognitive Appraisal Theory
Emotions result from evaluating the impact of events.
Example: Appraising a situation as dangerous leads to fear.
Facial Feedback Hypothesis
Facial expressions can influence emotional experiences.
Example: Smiling can make you feel happier.
Polygraph Tests
Measure physiological responses to assess truthfulness.
Broaden-and-Build Theory of Emotion
Positive emotions enhance well-being by broadening thought processes and building resources.
Emotional Expressions
Outward displays of emotions.
Universal Emotions
Similar emotional expressions across cultures.