Study Notes on Empires and Centralized Power

The Concept of Monarchy and Centralized Power in Europe

  • Quote by King James I (1566-1625): "The state of monarchy is the supremest thing upon earth: for kings are not only God’s lieutenants upon earth, and sit upon God’s throne, but even by God himself they are called gods."

Emergence of Powerful Monarchies

  • By the end of the 16th century:

    • Centralization of Power: Achieved through control of taxes, military, and aspects of religion.

    • Resulting Systems:

    • Powerful monarchy in England.

    • Absolute monarchy in France.

    • Alternative Methods of Control in Other Regions:

    • Inca Empire: Building temples.

    • Japan: Paying military elite (samurai) a salary.

    • Ottoman Empire: Establishing a captive governmental bureaucracy (devshirme system).

Methods for Maintaining Control (1450-1750)

  • General Strategies:

    • Use bureaucratic elites to oversee different regions.

    • Develop a professional military.

Centralizing Control in Europe

Divine Right of Kings

  • King James I of England believed in the divine right of kings, where:

    • The right to rule is given by God.

    • The king is a political and religious figure, outside of earthly laws.

    • Challenges to the king are seen as challenges to God.

England's Administrative Structure

  • Tudor Dynasty (1485-1603): Established justices of the peace (JPs):

    • Selected by the landed gentry.

    • Responsibilities:

    • Maintain peace in the counties.

    • Settle minor legal matters.

    • Enforce the monarch's laws.

    • Power of JPs increased over Tudor rule.

    • JPs often occupied seats in the House of Commons.

    • Parliament, established in 1265, checked the monarch's powers.

    • English Bill of Rights (1689):

      • Ensured individual civil liberties.

      • Legal processes required for arrest and detention.

      • Protection against tyranny, requiring Parliament's consent for matters such as taxation.

Absolutism in France

Key Figures and Developments

  • Henry IV (1589-1610): Advocated for divine right via advisor Jean Bodin.

  • Louis XIII (1610-1643): Increased government centralization with Cardinal Richelieu:

    • Introduced intendants (royal officials) to implement central government orders.

    • Tax farmers responsible for tax collection.

  • Louis XIV (1643-1715) - "The Sun King":

    • Embraced the theory of divine right, virtually dictatorial.

    • Proclaimed, "L’etat, c’est moi" (I am the state).

    • Unified lawmaking and justice within his authority.

    • Kept nobles at Versailles to inhibit independent action, ultimately weakening the monarchy leading to revolution.

Comparison - Absolute Monarchs Kangxi vs. Louis XIV

  • Emperor Kangxi (1661-1722):

    • Ruled Qing Dynasty for 61 years.

    • Introduced Western education and opened ports.

    • Multilingual, advocated the arts, promoted science.

  • Louis XIV:

    • Ruled France for 72 years.

    • Known as the Sun King.

    • Constructed the Palace of Versailles and extended borders.

    • Symbol of absolute monarchy.

Governance in Russia

Social Structure and Serfdom

  • Moscow's Social Hierarchy:

    • Boyars (noble landowners) at the top, merchants below, and peasants at the bottom.

    • Peasants, many indentured as serfs, exchanged land for protection from nobles.

Ivan IV's (The Terrible) Approach

  • Faced opposition from boyars, especially in Novgorod:

    • Punished opposing boyars by confiscating lands.

    • Moved defeated boyars to Moscow to observe them.

    • Established the oprichnina (a paramilitary group loyal to him).

Peter the Great’s Reforms

  • Romanov Dynasty (Post-Ivan IV):

    • Peter the Great (1682-1725) centralized power against boyar conflicts, defeating half-sister Sophia.

    • Expanded provincial administration (first 8, then 50 divisions).

    • Created a Senate for governance during his absence, thus reorganizing the Russian bureaucracy.

Ottoman Empire’s Structure of Control

Devshirme System

  • Selection and training process for Christian boys from conquered lands (8-20 years old):

    • Forced recruitment for military and governmental roles.

    • Boys educated in politics, the arts, and military.

    • Elite soldiers known as Janissaries with substantial loyalty to the sultan.

Control in East and South Asia

Ming and Qing Dynasties in China

  • Ming Dynasty (1368-1644):

    • Restored civil service exams to revive bureaucracy.

    • Improved education and governance.

  • Qing Dynasty (1644-1912):

    • Initial corruption led to high taxation and repression of rebellions.

Centralization of Power in Japan

  • Shogunal Rule: Military leaders (shoguns) held real power, despite the emperor's presence.

    • Territorial conflicts among daimyos, leading to militarization and unity efforts.

  • Tokugawa Ieyasu (1600-1616):

    • Centralized rule through maintaining hostages, reducing daimyo autonomy, and avoiding revolts by controlling residences.

Consolidating Mughal Power in South Asia

Akbar (1556-1605)

  • Key Mughal ruler known for:

    • Military expansion against Hindu kingdoms, establishment of an efficient government, and fair legal systems.

    • Allowed appeals to him for judgments in pursuits.

    • Zamindar system established taxed land for governance and construction.

Legitimizing Power through Religion and Art

Trends Across Empires

  • European and other global empires legitimized authority through:

    • Divine right theory and monumental architecture (e.g., Versailles).

  • Peter the Great and St. Petersburg:

    • Established to monitor boyars and symbolize Russian governance.

    • Workers built streets and structures, with the Winter Palace showcasing European influences.

Askia the Great and Songhai

  • Askia Mohammad I (1493):

    • Promoted Islam and efficient bureaucracy, uniting his empire through religion.

Mughal Architectural Achievements

  • Shah Jahan's Taj Mahal:

    • Symbolized Islamic architecture and artistic achievements, showcasing Mughal power.

  • Construction styles: Combined local arts with Islamic traditions, resulting in beautiful works.

Ottoman Architectural and Artistic Contributions

Cultural Continuities and Changes

  • Istanbul (formerly Constantinople): Retained significance along trade routes.

    • Established coffeehouses as intellectual hubs.

    • Continued cultural gatherings contributing to arts and learning.

Notable Structures

  • Suleymaniye Mosque and Topkapi Palace:

    • Reflect Ottoman architectural prowess and cultural heritage.

Financing Empires

Revenue Generation Strategies

Russia

  • Taxation under Peter the Great:

    • Established state-owned industries; pivoted to a poll tax on individuals.

Ottoman and Mughal Systems

  • Ottomans: Collected taxes via corruption-prone local tax farmers.

  • Mughal Zamindars: Held more income than permitted, raising personal armies.

Ming China

  • Tax Collection Responsibilities: Borne by wealthier citizens, focusing on agricultural taxes, grains, and goods.

  • Financial Troubles Post-1850s: Resulted from wars and extravagant spending.

Tribute Systems

Implementation of Tribute Collection

  • General Formulation: Empires demanded tributes from conquered states, serving recognition of power.

  • Examples Include:

    • Korea as a tributary state to China.

    • The Mexica and the Songhai Empire administering tribute systems.