Comprehensive Study Guide of Ancient Indian History and Pre-historic Civilizations

Introduction to the History of India

The Indian subcontinent, extending from the Himalayas in the north to the sea in the south, is famously known as Bharatvarsh. In the epics and Puranas, it is referred to as "Bharatvarsh," meaning "the country of Bharata," and its inhabitants are called "Bharati," representing the children of Bharata. The ancient Greeks referred to this land as "India," while medieval Muslim historians used the terms "Hind" or "Hindustan" to address it. For the convenience of study, Indian history is categorized into three major parts: Ancient India, Medieval India, and Modern India.

Sources of Ancient Indian History

There are four primary sources from which information regarding ancient Indian history is obtained: Religious Texts, Historical Texts, Accounts of Foreign Travelers, and Archaeological Evidence.

Religious and historical texts provide significant insights. The most ancient religious texts are the Vedas, compiled by Maharshi Krishna Dwaipayana Vedavyas. There are four Vedas: Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samveda, and Atharvaveda.

Detailed Study of the Rigveda

The Rigveda is defined as a collection of systematic knowledge of hymns (richas). It consists of $10$ mandals, $1028$ suktas (including $11$ suktas of the Balkhilya text), and $10462$ richas. A sage who recites these richas is known as a "Hotri." This Veda provides extensive information about the political system and history of the Aryans.

The third mandal of the Rigveda, composed by Vishwamitra, contains the famous Gayatri Mantra dedicated to the sun deity Savitri. The ninth mandal contains mentions of the deity Soma. The eighth mandal contains handwritten hymns known as "Khil." The tenth mandal describes the "Purushsukta," which conceptualizes the four-fold varna system (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra), stating they originated from the mouth, arms, thighs, and feet of the primordial being, Brahma. The Dharmasutras further distinguish the statuses, occupations, obligations, and privileges of these four castes.

The Rigveda is also the oldest source for the legend of the three steps taken by Lord Vishnu in his Vamanavatar. In terms of Vedic literature, the Shatapatha Brahmana holds a secondary place only to the Rigveda as a source of ancient history. Within the Rigveda, there are $250$ hymns dedicated to Indra and $200$ hymns dedicated to Agni.

Understanding Temporal Designations: BC and AD

The current Gregorian calendar (Christian or Julian calendar) is based on the birth year of Jesus Christ. The era before Christ's birth is called Before Christ (B.C.), where years are counted in reverse order. For example, Mahatma Buddha was born in $563$ B.C. and died in $483$ B.C., meaning he was born $563$ years before Christ and died $483$ years before Christ. The era starting from the birth of Christ is called Anno Domini (A.D.), a Latin phrase meaning "In the year of the Lord." This is abbreviated as "E." in Hindi.

The Other Vedas and Associated Literature

The Yajurveda is a collection of mantras and rules for sacrifices, recited by an "Adhvaryu." It is unique because it is composed in both prose and poetry. The Samveda is a collection of hymns that can be sung, and its reciter is called an "Udagatri." It is considered the father of Indian music.

The Atharvaveda, composed by Rishi Atharva, contains mantras related to disease prevention, sorcery, spells, blessings, atonement, medicine, marriage, and love. it also describes the thoughts, beliefs, and superstitions of common people. Interestingly, the Atharvaveda criticizes the birth of daughters and refers to the "Sabha" and "Samiti" as the two daughters of Prajapati. The Rigveda is the oldest Veda, while the Atharvaveda is the most recent.

To understand the Vedas properly, six Vedangas were created: Shiksha, Jyotish, Kalp, Vyakaran, Nirukt, and Chhand. Historical narratives are best preserved in the Puranas, authored by Lomaharsha or his son Ugrashrava. There are $18$ Puranas, but only five (Matsya, Vayu, Vishnu, Brahman, and Bhagwat) contain genealogies of kings. The Matsya Purana is the oldest and most authentic. Most Puranas are written in simple Sanskrit couplets; while women and Shudras were not permitted to read the Vedas, they were allowed to listen to the Puranas as recited by priests in temples.

Social degradation of women is noted in the Maitrayani Samhita, where women are listed as the third major vice alongside gambling and liquor. Conversely, the Shatapatha Brahmana describes a woman as the "Ardhangini" (half-body) of a man. The Manusmriti is the oldest and most authentic Smriti text, belonging to the Shunga period, while the Narad Smriti provides information about the Gupta era.

Special Historical and Religious Texts

Buddhist literature includes the Jataka, which contains stories of Buddha's previous births. The Hinayana sect's primary text is the "Kathavastu," describing the life of Buddha through various narratives. Jain literature is called "Agam." The early history of Jainism is found in the "Kalpasutra," and the "Bhagwati Sutra" contains details of Mahavira's life and his relationships with contemporaries.

Key historical books include:

• Arthashastra: Authored by Chanakya (also known as Koutilya or Vishnugupt). It is divided into $15$ sections and $180$ chapters, providing information on Mauryan history.
• Rajtarangini: Written by Kalhana, this is the first attempt to write history chronologically in Sanskrit, focusing on the history of Kashmir.
• Chachnama: Authored by Ali Ahmed, it records the Arab conquest of Sindh.
• Ashtadhyayi: Written by Panini, it is the first book on Sanskrit grammar and provides insights into pre-Mauryan and Mauryan political conditions.
• Gargi Samhita: An astrological text by Katyayana that mentions Greek invasions of India.
• Mahabhashya: Written by Patanjali, the priest of Pushyamitra Shunga, providing details on the Shunga dynasty.

Accounts of Foreign Travelers

Greek-Roman Writers:

1. Teresius: An Iranian physician whose accounts are considered unreliable due to their fantastical nature.
2. Herodotus: Known as the "Father of History," he wrote "Historica" in the 5th century B.C., describing India-Persia relations based on hearsay.
3. Megasthenes: The ambassador of Seleucus Nicator in Chandragupta Maurya's court; he wrote "Indica" about Mauryan society.
4. Deimachus: Ambassador of Syrian King Antiochus in Bindusara's court.
5. Dionysius: Ambassador of Egyptian King Ptolemy Philadelphus in Ashoka's court.
6. Ptolemy: Wrote "Geography of India" in the 2nd century.
7. Pliny: Wrote "Natural History" in the 1st century, detailing Indian flora, fauna, and minerals.
8. Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: An anonymous author's account from around $80$ A.D. regarding Indian ports and trade items.

Chinese Writers:

1. Fa-Hien: Visited during Chandragupta II's reign, describing the society of Madhya Pradesh.
2. Sung Yun: Visited in $518$ A.D., collecting Buddhist texts.
3. Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang): Arrived in $629$ A.D. during Harshavardhana's reign. He stayed for $15$ years, studied at Nalanda University (under Vice-Chancellor Shilabhadra), and wrote "Si-Yu-Ki," covering $138$ countries.
4. I-tsing: Visited in the late 7th century, describing Nalanda and Vikramshila universities.

Arabic Writers:

1. Al-Biruni: Came with Mahmud of Ghazni; wrote "Kitab-ul-Hind" or "Tahqiq-i-Hind" (Discovery of India). It contains $80$ chapters on religion, philosophy, festivals, astronomy, and society.
2. Ibn Battuta: Wrote "Rihla," a travelogue of the 14th century. Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq appointed him as the Qazi (judge) of Delhi in $1333$ A.D. due to his scholarly merit.

Other Writers:

1. Taranath: A Tibetan writer of "Kangyur" and "Tangyur."
2. Marco Polo: Visited the Pandya kingdom in the late 13th century.

Archaeological Evidence and Inscriptions

Archaeological findings include the Boghaz-Koi (Asia Minor) inscription from $1400$ B.C., mentioning Vedic deities Mithra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatya. The Besnagar (Vidisha) Garuda pillar by Greek ambassador Heliodorus proves the development of the Bhagavat religion in central India.

Key inscriptions and relevant rulers include:

• Hathigumpha Inscription (undated): King Kharvela of Kalinga (first mention of "Bharatvarsh").
• Junagarh (Girnar) Inscription: Rudradaman.
• Nasik Inscription: Gautami Balashri.
• Prayag Pillar Inscription: Samudragupt.
• Aihole Inscription: Pulakeshin II.
• Mandsaur Inscription: Malwa King Yashovarman (mentions silk weaver guilds).
• Gwalior Inscription: Pratihara King Bhoj.
• Bhitari and Junagarh Inscriptions: Skandagupt (mentions Huna invasions).
• Deopara Inscription: Vijaysen of Bengal.
• Sohgaura Inscription: First mention of famine (durbhiksha).
• Eran Inscription: First written evidence of the Sati practice under King Bhanugupt.

The study of inscriptions is called Epigraphy. Coins also provide evidence: ancient coins are called "Ahata" coins (Punch-marked), referred to as "Karshapana" in literature. Indo-Greeks were the first to issue coins with inscriptions. A coin of Samudragupt showing him playing the Veena proves his love for music. Roman coins were found at Arikamedu (near Puducherry). Early Indian relations were established with Burma (Suvarnabhumi), Malaya (Swarnadweep), Cambodia (Kamboj), and Java (Yavadweep).

Pre-historic Period and Human Evolution

The period with no written records is called the Pre-historic period. Proto-history refers to the period where writing existed but remains undeciphered. History is the period with available written records. "Homo sapiens" (wise humans) appeared on Earth approximately $30000$ to $40000$ years ago. The main occupation of Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) humans was hunting. Fire was discovered in the Paleolithic age, while the wheel was discovered in the Neolithic age.

In the Neolithic age, humans developed permanent dwellings and domesticated the dog first. Copper was the first metal used, and the first tool made was the axe (found at Atirampakkam). Robert Bruce Foote was the first person to discover Paleolithic tools in India in $1863$ A.D. at Pallavaram. Most tools were made of quartzite (sphatik). Mohenjo-Daro, meaning "Mound of the Dead" in Sindhi, was the oldest city. The only ape found in India is the Gibbon in Assam. Inamgaon was a major Chalcolithic settlement related to the Jorwe culture. Evidence of fossils was found in the Shivalik Hills, and the first evidence of humans in India was found in the Narmada Valley.

The Indus Valley Civilization

Using Carbon-14 ($C^{14}$) dating, the accepted period of the Indus civilization is $2400$ B.C. to $1700$ B.C. It was discovered by Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni. The civilization is classified as Proto-historic or Bronze Age. Its main inhabitants were Dravidians and Mediterraneans.

Geographic boundaries of the Indus Civilization:

• West: Sutkagedor (Baluchistan) on the Dashk River.
• East: Alamgirpur (Meerut, U.P.) on the Hindon River.
• North: Manda (Akhnoor, J&K) on the Chenab River.
• South: Daimabad (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) on the Godavari River.

It was an urban civilization. Six cities are recognized as major: Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Ganweriwala, Dholavira, Rakhigharhi, and Kalibangan. Most post-independence sites were found in Gujarat. Lothal and Sutkotda were ports. Evidence of ploughed fields and carved bricks was found at Kalibangan. The granary at Mohenjo-Daro is likely the largest building of this civilization.

Foreign trade during the Indus period involved importing various items:

• Copper: Khetri, Baluchistan, Oman.
• Silver: Afghanistan, Iran.
• Gold: Karnataka, Afghanistan, Iran.
• Tin: Afghanistan, Iran.
• Gomed: Saurashtra.
• Lapis Lazuli (Lajvart): Mesopotamia.
• Lead (Seesa): Iran.

Agriculture was invented in the Neolithic period. Mehergarh (Western Baluchistan) is an ancient site of grain production; the earliest crops were wheat and barley. Koldihwa is associated with the oldest evidence of rice. Risley was the first official to categorize the Indian population on a scientific racial basis.