AMSCO Unit 2

UNIT 2: Population and Migration Patterns and Processes

• The distribution of people influences all aspects of human geography; population distribution (spread of people) and concentration (cities vs. rural) impacts interactions, environmental demands, and communal decisions.
• Settlement factors include access to food, water, moderate climate, job opportunities, and proximity to family.

Changes in Populations

• Historically, high birth rates were offset by high child mortality, resulting in slow population growth.
• Advances in public health, medicine, and the economy in the past two centuries have increased life expectancy, leading to a global population explosion.
• Population growth has leveled off in many wealthy countries like Germany, South Korea, and the United States.

Why People Move

• Migration is often a choice driven by the desire to escape poverty, persecution, or warfare, and to seek economic opportunity, religious liberty, political freedom, and peace.
• Forced migration, such as the enslavement of Africans over four centuries, also contributes to population shifts.

Enduring Understandings

• PS0-2: Understanding population distribution is essential for understanding global cultural, political, and economic patterns.
• IMP-2: Population changes are due to mortality, fertility, and migration, influenced by environmental, economic, cultural, and political factors.
• SPS-2: Population changes have short- and long-term effects on a place's economy, culture, and politics.

CHAPTER 3: Population Distribution and Composition (Topics 2.1-2.3)

Topic 2.1: Population Distribution

• Learning Objectives:
  • Identify factors influencing population distribution at different scales. (PS0-2.A)
  • Define methods for calculating population density. (PS0-2.B)
  • Explain the differences and impacts of various population density calculations. (PS0-2.C)

Topic 2.2: Consequences of Population Distribution

• Learning Objective: Explain how population distribution and density affect society and the environment. (PS0-2.D)

Topic 2.3: Population Composition

• Learning Objectives:
  • Describe elements of population composition used by geographers. (PS0-2.E)
  • Explain how geographers depict and analyze population composition. (PS0-2.F)
• Half the world's population lives on 7% of the land

2.1 Population Distribution

• Essential Question: What factors influence population distribution, and what are the impacts of different methods used to calculate population density?
• Humans inhabit a small area of the planet, and while population density has increased significantly, population distribution has remained similar over the past two centuries.
• People prefer to live where survival is easy and comfortable, with access to food, water, and moderate climates.
• Population distribution is the pattern of human settlement across the Earth.
• Population density is the average population per square mile or kilometer, indicating how crowded a place is.
• Understanding population distribution and density is crucial for decision-making, such as setting electoral boundaries or developing new housing.

Physical Factors Influencing Population Distribution

• Early humans settled where food, water, and shelter were readily available, and these needs still influence population distribution today.
• Most people live in the midlatitudes (30° to 60° north and south of the equator) due to moderate climates and better soils, especially in the northern hemisphere due to more land mass.
• Low-Lying Areas: Most people live in low-lying areas, which typically have better soils for agriculture and are often near oceans, facilitating transportation and providing food and temperature moderation.
• Fresh water sources like lakes and rivers are vital for drinking, irrigation, transportation, and food.
• Regions with challenging environments like mountains, deserts, and cold climates have low population densities.
• The tropics also have lower population densities due to prevalent diseases and poor soils.
• Polar regions have no permanent human populations.

Human Factors Influencing Population Distribution

• Humans are attracted to areas with safety, job opportunities, and social connections (friends and relatives), leading to the growth of cities.
• Transportation networks significantly impact population distribution; people prefer to live near trade routes, resulting in linear settlement patterns along roads, train lines, and rivers.
• Political decisions can concentrate populations in isolated locations; for example, the military base Alert in northern Canada.

Scale of Analysis and Physical Factors

• The principle that people prefer to live on desirable land applies at all scales.
• At a global scale, high-elevation regions have limited populations due to cold climates.
• At the city level, higher elevations might be preferred for cool breezes, safety from floods, and views.
• At a regional scale, climate variation explains population distribution, such as coastal California's high population compared to inland desert and mountain regions.

Scale of Analysis and Human Factors

• On a global or national scale, many people move to cities for economic opportunities despite pollution.
• At a local scale, people avoid settling near pollution sources unless lower property values make it necessary.
• Governments influence population distribution by establishing military bases (increasing population) or creating state parks (reducing population).
• Cities' population distribution often reflects social stratification based on economic status, power, and ethnicity.

Population Density

• Population density is calculated by comparing an area's population to its size, expressed as people per square mile or kilometer.
• Demographers identify three types of population density: arithmetic, physiological, and agricultural.

Arithmetic Population Density

• Arithmetic population density divides a region's population by its total area.
• Example: In 2019, the United States had a population of approximately $328,239,523$ in $3,841,999$ square miles, resulting in an arithmetic population density of $85.4$ people per square mile.
• Arithmetic density provides an average but does not indicate population distribution within the area.
• Population distribution patterns include:
  • Even distribution: People are evenly dispersed.
  • Cluster distribution: People are concentrated in one area.
  • Linear distribution: People are spread out in a line along a river or transit route.

Physiological Population Density

• Physiological population density divides the population by the amount of arable land.
• Example: Egypt has a physiological density of $8,078/sq. \text{ mile}$ compared to an arithmetic density of $226/sq. \text{ mile}$, indicating that a small percentage of its land is suitable for growing crops.
• Physiological density is more useful in determining a region's carrying capacity.
• High physiological density suggests a need for higher crop yields or alternative food sources.
• Countries with high physiological densities may rely on imported food.

Agricultural Population Density

• Agricultural population density compares the number of farmers to the area of arable land.
• Developed countries have lower agricultural densities due to technology, while less-developed countries have higher agricultural densities because of reliance on manual labor.
• Example: The Netherlands, with a low agricultural density of $31/sq. \text{ mile}$, indicates that its farmers can afford technology and produce food more efficiently than farmers in Bangladesh, with an agricultural population density of $431/sq. \text{ mile}$.

Population Density and Time

• Density varies by time of year and scale.
• Warm-weather states like Arizona and Florida become more dense each winter.
• Local scale: Manhattan's population density doubles on weekdays due to commuters, straining resources and public services.

Key Terms

• Population distribution
• Population density
• Midlatitudes
• Social stratification
• Arithmetic population density
• Physiological population density
• Arable
• Agricultural population density

2.2 Consequences of Population Distribution

• Essential Question: How do population distribution and density affect society and the environment?
• Uneven distribution results in varying densities, with densely settled areas having high impact and sparsely settled areas having less impact on the environment.

Implications of Distribution and Density

• Population distribution and density reflect choices based on values.
• Economic, political, and social processes are influenced by these choices.

Economic, Political, and Social Processes

• Businesses locate near customer bases and labor forces, benefiting towns and cities with concentrated populations.
• Political processes are affected by population distribution and density, requiring adjustments to electoral boundaries every ten years based on census data to maintain equal voter representation.
• Redistricting often results in physically smaller urban districts and larger rural districts due to population shifts.
• Government and private services are positioned near population concentrations, acting as nodes within functional regions.
• Remote rural areas often lack basic services due to lower populations.

Infrastructure and Urban Services

• Infrastructure includes facilities and structures that support daily activities, such as sewer systems and roads.
• Cities require more infrastructure as they grow.
• High-density housing units increase population density in desired areas.
• Providing services is more cost-effective in high-density areas.
• Challenges in high-density areas include greater risks of contamination and disease spread.

Environment and Natural Resources

• Overpopulation depends on population distribution, density, and carrying capacity.
• Carrying capacity is the number of people a region can support without environmental damage.
• Higher population density usually strains the environment more.
• Carrying capacity can change over time due to technological changes in agriculture (e.g., drought-resistant plants, irrigation methods) or climate.
• Cities are often built on land with high carrying capacity due to historical reasons.
• Increased population density can lead to air and water pollution and resource depletion.

Environmental challenges faced by cities.

• Water purification or piping from long distances is common.
• Cities facing serious water shortages include Cairo, Cape Town, Moscow, Bangalore, Beijing, and Jakarta.
• In the United States, Los Angeles, Houston, Atlanta, and Miami face threats to economic and population growth due to water scarcity.

Key Terms

• Redistricting
• Infrastructure
• Overpopulation
• Carrying capacity

2.3 Population Composition

• Essential Question: What are elements of population composition, and how are those elements used by geographers to depict and analyze population composition?
• Populations have distinct demographic characteristics, such as age and sex, which influence culture and economic potential.

Population Composition

• Identifying a region's population composition requires examining and analyzing the age and sex of its people.

Age and Sex

• Age and sex distribution patterns vary.
• Utah had the youngest average age in the United States in 2018 (31.0), while Maine had the oldest (44.9).
• These differences shape public policy.
• Gender imbalances can result from wars, migrations, and government policies.
• Mining towns and military training bases often have more males than females.

Population Pyramids

• Age-sex composition graphs, commonly called population pyramids, provide information on birth rates, death rates, life expectancy, and economic development.
• Population pyramids can also indicate past events such as environmental hazards, wars, political changes, and epidemics.

Reading a Pyramid

• The vertical axis shows age groups (cohorts).
• Males are usually shown on the left, and females on the right.
• The horizontal axis represents percentages or absolute numbers.
• Pyramids are commonly constructed at a country scale but can also be used for cities, states, or multicountry regions.
• Population pyramids measure in percentages to make comparisons easier between countries. They can also show the total population of a group (based on age or sex).

Determining Population Trends

• A wide-based pyramid indicates population growth (large percentage of children compared to adults and older people).
• A symmetrical pyramid with gradual change between cohorts indicates stability (assuming not affected by war, natural disaster, epidemics, or government interference).

Common Patterns

• The Niger pyramid, for example, shows the general patterns of a population pyramid in a growing nation.
• A population pyramid is nearly symmetrical on both sides indicating a balance of males and females.
• Changes in the size of the bars from one cohort to the next are gradual

Impact of War

• War leads to loss of life, especially among fighting-age males (18-40), and separation of men and women, delaying family formation.
• Birth Deficit: Shorter bars representing children born during the conflict.

Baby Booms, Busts, and Echoes

• Baby Boom: A spike in birth rates after hostilities end (e.g., the United States baby boom from 1946 to 1965).
• Baby Bust: Lower birth rates following a boom until boomers reach childbearing age.
• Echo: A bulge on the pyramid due to a high number of boomers having children.

Migration and Other Anomalies

• An asymmetrical pyramid indicates notable events.
• Examples:
  • Longer bars for ages 18-25 indicate a university town.
  • Longer bars for ages 25-50 indicate an economic crisis that caused people have fewer children.
  • Longer bars for people over 65 indicate a retiree community.
  • Longer bars for males indicate an oil boom or presence of a military base or prison.
  • Longer bars for females indicate an assisted living home.

Dependency Ratio

• The dependency ratio compares the potential workforce (ages 15-64) to the dependent population (under 15 or over 64).

Key Terms

• Age-sex composition graph
• Population pyramid
• Cohorts
• Birth deficit
• Baby boom
• Baby bust
• Echo
• Potential workforce
• Dependent population
• Dependency ratio

CHAPTER 4: Population Change (Topics 2.4-2.9)

Topic 2.4: Population Dynamics

• Learning Objective: Explain factors that account for contemporary and historical trends in population growth and decline. (IMP-2.A)

Topic 2.5: The Demographic Transition Model

• Learning Objective: Explain theories of population growth and decline. (IMP-2.B)

Topic 2.6: Malthusian Theory

• Learning Objective: Explain theories of population growth and decline. (IMP-2.B)

Topic 2.7: Population Policies

• Learning Objective: Explain the intent and effects of various population and immigrant policies on population size and composition. (SPS-2.A)

Topic 2.8: Women and Demographic Change

• Learning Objective: Explain how the changing role of females has demographic consequences in different parts of the world. (SPS-2.B)

Topic 2.9: Aging Populations

• Learning Objective: Explain the causes and consequences of an aging population. (SPS-2.C)
• A finite world can support only a finite population; therefore, population growth must eventually equal zero.

2.4 Population Dynamics

• Essential Question: What are the factors that account for contemporary and historical trends in population growth and decline?
• The world population has exploded since 1800, from 1 billion to around 7.4 billion today, and is predicted to reach nearly 11 billion by 2100.

Population Change

• Populations change over time, usually growing but sometimes shrinking.

• The United States population has grown steadily since 1790.

• Understanding and predicting population change is key to understanding the world.

• The demographic balancing equation describes the future population of a region:

  $\text{Future population} = \text{Current population} + (\text{Births} - \text{Deaths}) + (\text{Immigrants} - \text{Emigrants})$

• Geographers must understand and predict births, deaths, immigration, and emigration.

Measuring the Number of Births

• Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Number of live births per year for each 1,000 people.
• Total Fertility Rate (TFR): Average number of children who would be born per woman of ages 15 to 49, assuming every woman lived through her childbearing years.
• TFR reflects cultural norms, while CBR reflects total population change.
• TFR was higher in the past; for example, parts of Europe before 1800 averaged 6.2 children per woman.

Life Expectancy

• Global population continues to grow due to decreasing death rates and increasing life expectancy.
• Life Expectancy: The average number of years people live, commonly expressed from birth.
• A century ago, global life expectancy was about 34 years at birth; today it is nearly 70 years.

Global Population Increase Factors

• Drop in the infant mortality rate: The number of children who die before their first birthday.
• Economic development has increased wealth and improved food quality.
• Political stability has allowed for improved sanitation infrastructure.
• Advances in technology have greatly improved healthcare.

Better Food Production and Nutrition

• Advances in agriculture
  • Mechanizing food production
  • Improving seeds, fertilizers, and farming techniques
  • Efficiently transporting products
• Changes that rippled through society
  • Greater farming efficiency
  • Improved food security
  • Smaller farm families
  • Farms consolidation to larger farms
  • Decrease population in rural areas

Advances in Public Sanitation

• Early industrial cities grew cities grew, so did problem of large population.
• Sewer Systems: Creation of public sewer systems to protect water supplies from contamination.
• Water and Waste Systems: Installation of water treatment plants and garbage collection services reduced disease.

Improvements in Healthcare

• Vaccines: Development of vaccines to prevent diseases (e.g., smallpox vaccine).
• Antibiotics: Use of antibiotics to cure bacterial infections (e.g., penicillin).
• Better Medical Care: Improved medical procedures, advancements in surgery have now made common deadly diseases less likely to occur.

Rate of Population Increase

• The natural increase or decrease in a population is measured by subtracting the number of deaths from the number of births.

• Crude birth rate (CBR)

• Crude death rate (CDR)

• Rate of natural increase (RNI): Percentage at which a country's population is growing or declining, without the impact of migration.

  $RNI = (CBR - CDR) \div 10$

• Multiply RNI by 10 to get a percentage. i.e. Multiply a result of 1.2 by 10 will give you 1.2%

• RNI tends to be less than 1.0% in more-developed countries and greater than 1.0% in less-developed countries.

Population Doubling Time

• Arithmetic growth: When the increase is a constant number each period.

• Exponential growth: When the increase is a constant factor each period.

• Since the early 1800s, global population has been growing exponentially.

• Population doubling time: The time it takes to double in size.

  • Estimated using the Rule of 70: Dividing 70 by the growth rate per year.

Key Terms

• Demographic balancing equation
• Immigrants
• Emigrants
• Crude birth rate (CBR)
• Total fertility rate (TFR)
• Life expectancy
• Infant mortality rate
• Crude death rate (CDR)
• Rate of natural increase (RNI)
• Population doubling time

2.5 The Demographic Transition Model

• Essential Question: How does the demographic transition model explain population growth and decline?
• The demographic transition model (DTM) shows changes in birth rate and death rate as a country transitions from an agrarian to an industrial society.

The Demographic Transition Model Stages

• Stage 1: High Stationary: High birth and death rates, very low population growth (e.g., scattered isolated groups today).

• Stage 2: Early Expanding: High birth rate, rapidly declining death rate, rapid population growth (e.g., Mali, South Sudan).

• Stage 3: Late Expanding: Declining birth rate, more slowly declining death rate, rapid but slowing growth (e.g., Mexico, Turkey).

• Stage 4: Low Stationary: Low birth and death rates, very low growth (e.g., United States, China).

• Stage 5: Declining: Birth rate so low it falls below the death rate causing population to decrease. Low but unstable death rates. (e.g., Germany, Japan).

Demographic Transition and Population Pyramids

• Populations in the different DTM stages each produce different shapes population pyramids. These include explosive, expansive, state and decreasing.

• Stage 2: Expansive population pyramid with a wide base (high birth rate) and narrowing upper years (low life expectancy) (e.g., Niger).

• Stage 3: Urbanizing nation with a declining birth rate and more slowly declining death rate. The majority of the population is middle aged, but the percentage of elderly is increasing as life expectancy goes up.. (e.g., Turkey).

• Stage 4: Stationary population pyramid with population that is not significantly growing or shrinking. High life expectancy and increased percentage of older people. (e.g., France).

• Stage 5: The countries have a decreasing birth rate. The population is a growing number of older people resulting in aging and declining population for a small average overall decline in population. (e.g., Japan).

Each tending to produce a different-shaped population pyramid.

Policy Implications

• Countries in Stage 2 or 3 often lack the resources to educate all children.

• Countries in Stage 4 or 5 often face problems funding healthcare for the elderly.

• Since the elderly can vote while children cannot, they often have more political influence.

DTM at Different Scales of Analysis

• The DTM can be used to analyze changes at smaller scales (e.g., regions or subregions within a country).

Evaluation of the Demographic Transition Model

• The DTM helps explain, describe, and predict spatial activity and phenomena related to population increase and decline.

• The demographic transition model helps well explain the experiences of the western European countries. (i.e. this is base on these countries' development)

• Today, birth control and government policies play a much larger role in reducing birth rates than previously.

• Economic changes in less-developed countries today are much different than the experiences of the United States and Western Europe in the past.

*. Economic or Societal pressures propel countries through each state, even though this does not necessary cause something to occur.

• Each state as its demographic challenges and designed insights to help those with these challenges.

Epidemiological Transition Model

• Epidemiological transition model is an extension of the demographic transition model and explains the changing death rates and more common causes of death within societies.

Epidemiological Transition Model Stages

• Stage 1: Disease and Famine: Parasitic or infectious diseases, accidents, animal attacks, or human conflicts cause most deaths. High death rate and low life expectancy.

• Stage 2: Receding Pandemics: Pandemics decline due to improved sanitation, nutrition, and medicine. A decreasing death rate and increasing life expectancy.

• Stage 3: Degenerative and Human-Created Diseases: Infectious and parasitic diseases decrease, but diseases associated with aging increase. Death rate stabilizes at a low level and life
  expectancy increases.

• Stage 4: Delayed Degenerative Diseases: Age-related diseases are put off as medical procedures delay the onset of these diseases. Death rate reaches its lowest level and life expectancy reaches a peak.

• Stage 5: Reemergence of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases: Infectious and parasitic diseases increase. Life expectancy decreases.

• One criticism of the model is that it does not take into account the impact of lifestyle choices nor local environmental factors in extending or shortening life expectancy.

Key Terms

• Demographic transition model
• Demographic momentum
• Epidemiological transition model

2.6 Malthusian Theory

• Essential Question: How does Malthusian theory explain population growth and decline?
• In 1798, Thomas Malthus published one of the most provocative books of all time - An Essay on the Principle of Population

Food Production and Population Growth

• Malthus believed that food production would increase arithmetically.
• Population would increase exponentially.
• Because of food and resource availability, Malthus argued there would be massive waves of starvation as well as increase likelihood of war, plagues, and economic struggles.

Alternative Views

• Food production increased dramatically faster than he predicted.
• Fertility rates have dropped in all regions of the world.
• Ester Boserup emphasized the positive aspects of a large population.
• Boserup also argued people find ways to produce more food

Malthusian Theory Today

• Neo-Malthusians: Argue that excessive population is threat that will lead to depletion of Non-renewable resources
• Lead to pollution of air and water
• Shortage of food.
• These issues could lead to social, political, economic, and environmental catastrophe.

Key Terms

• Malthusian theory
• Overpopulation
• Boserup theory
• Neo-Malthusians

2.7 Population Policies

• Essential Question: What are the intent and the effects of population and immigration policies on population size and composition?
• Population growth rates can be influenced by political factors, with many countries adopting policies to either slow or increase population growth.

Government Programs to Reduce Population Growth

• Antinatalist policies aim to decrease the number of births, often used by developing countries.

• China introduced the "Later, Longer, Fewer" policy in 1972, encouraging later marriage, longer intervals between children, and fewer children.

• China's Once-child policy

• The expansion in births is the direct result of that the children already born are having children.

• The effect that there is gender imbalance because there is a stronger percentage of males versus females (most particularly for Chinese decent).

• Chinese government officials reevaluated because of concerns that the future economically active workforce may not be large to sustain economic growth and support the elderly.

• The island city-state of Singapore has engaged in both pronatalist and antinatalist policies.

• Restricting or encouraging immigration through national policies is another political tool that a country can use to promote or discourage population growth.

Policies to Encourage Population Growth * Pronatalist*

Key Terms

• Antinatalist policies
• Pronatalist policies

2.8 Women and Demographic Change

• Essential Question: What are the demographic consequences due to the changing role of women in different parts of the world?
• Cultural, economic, political, and environmental realities have always shaped decisions about whether to have children. Since these conditions have varied across time and cultures, so have birth rates.
• As the number of factories grew in the early 19th century, children worked there alongside adults. Later that century, governments passed laws prohibiting child labor and began opening public schools.
  • As young women obtained more schooling, they began to expand their work opportunities (decrease children).
• Family Planning can be a powerful indicator if countries continue or discontinue trend of fewer families.
  • Birth rate or Total Fertility Rate can determine
• Although females are still underrepresented in government positions, their presence and involvement has never been greater.

Key Term

• Total fertility rate (TFR)

2.9 Aging Populations

• Essential Question: What are the causes and consequences of an Aging Population?
• An average age is getting older with longer expected life and more decline in birthrate.

Cause of aging populations.

• Expect to see average person living well after retirement because improvements made to healthcare.

• Drop of Crude Birth Rate results in change attitudes about family size.

• As a percentage is in a decrease to young, more as aging, the average is naturally increase.

Economic Impacts

• As populations age, their needs change. Japan's population has an average age of 49 years and has different priorities than Iraq where the average age is 21 years. average age in the U.S.

• Retirees are very likely to vote, as a powerful block. There are 30% higher.

• Traditionally, the aging parent has always had children assist them in growing old, or elderly, or move back with children. Increasingly has brought more social and economic challenges for elderly members.

• Economically it great challenges cost for healthcare and need for less retirees

Dependency Ratio

• Dependency ratio DR with value comparison between working with nonworking.

• DR (ages 15 to 4 with potential labor).

• Everyone else ages has deemed to have to support (under 15 and over 64).

• fewer people will inevitably be supporting more people.

Key Terms

• Dependency ratio
• Dependent population

CHAPTER 5: Migration (Topics 2.10-2.12)

Topic 2.10: Causes of Migration

• Learning Objective: Explain how different causal factors encourage migration. (IMP-2.C)

Topic 2.11: Forced and Voluntary Migration

• Learning Objective: Describe types of forced and voluntary migration. (IMP-2.D)

Topic 2.12: Effects of Migration

• Learning Objective: Explain historical and contemporary geographic effects of migration. (IMP-2.E)

2.10 Causes of Migration

• Essential Question: How have different causal factors encouraged migration?
• United States culture, institutions, and population are the products of five centuries of immigration.

Migration's Push and Pull Factors

• Migration is the permanent or semipermanent relocation of people from one place to another.
• Most people move in search of a better life by voluntary migrations
• Push Factor, Pull Factor
• From the perspective of a receiving country, an immigrant
• From the perspective of the country the migrant is leaving, the person is viewed as an emigrant

Economic Push and Pul Factors

• Group and Place of Origin
• Push Factors
• Pull Factors

Social Push and Pull Factors

• People will often migrate when they experience discrimination and persecution because of their ethnicity, race, gender, or religion.
• People are often influenced by kinship links or ties with relatives or friends.

Political Push and Pull Factors

• People who oppose the policies of a government often migrate because they face discrimination, arrest, and persecution.

Environmental Push and Pull Factors

• People often migrate to escape harm from natural disasters, drought, and other unfavorable environmental conditions.

Demographic Push and Pull Factors

• Some countries are unbalanced demographically.

• Geographers, such as Wilbur Zelinsky, saw a connection between migration patterns and the demographic transition model.

• Intervening Obstacles and Opportunities

• Migrants may encounter intervening obstacles (barriers that make reaching desired destination more difficult).

• Migrants may also encounter intervening opportunities (find a job along their journey).
  *Political, social,and environmental

Ravenstein's Laws of Migration

• Ravenstein observed patterns about migration =demographics, which still forms to basis for migration theory today.

  • Short Distances, Urban Areas/Areas

• Gravity model of Migration is more pull for urban and cities has the push and pull factor increases, the more gravity decreases

Multiple Steps

• Most migration through step migration, where migrants reach their eventual destination through a series of smaller moves.

Rural to Urban

• Most migration in history has been from rural agricultural areas to urban city areas. Because of the Industrial Revolution, rural areas needed fewer laborers on farms, and cities needed more people to work.

Counter Migration

• Each migration flow produces a movement in the opposite direction, called counter migration.

Youth

• Most migrants are younger adults, between ages 20 to 45.

Gender Patterns

• Most international migrants are young males, while more internal migrants are female.

Key Terms

• Migration
• Voluntary migration
• Push factor
• Pull factor
• Immigrant
• Emigrant
• Emigrate
• Migration transition model
• Intervening obstacles
• Intervening opportunity
• Distance decay
• Gravity model of migration
• Step migration
• Rural-to-urban migration
• Counter migration
• Return migration

2.11 Forced and Voluntary Migration

• Essential Question: What are the types of forced and voluntary migration?
• Geographers classify migration and migrants as either forced or voluntary depending on the reason for which people move.

Forces Migration

• Migration that involuntary = no choice BUT to move.

Slave Trade

• Largest forced migration in African History
  *From 15 Thru 19Th centuries about 12.5 millions africans where capture for slaves

Internally Displaced Persons and Refugee

• Forces migration can result from political events and policies or environmental crises such as floods, earthquakes, or famines that threaten peoples' lives.
  *If that those migrants move to anther area, the is internally displaced persons or IDP if they cross it be classified as Refugees
• People from Syria Civil War, refugees have to seek for relocate, refugee relocation.