high enlightenment (pt. 3)

Enlightened Despotism

  • Definition: Enlightened despotism refers to a form of absolute monarchy or despotism in which rulers are influenced by the Enlightenment ideals.

Key Characteristics

  • Promotion of Rationality: Enlightened despots aimed to apply reason and scientific thought to governance.

  • Reforms: They sought to implement reforms in their states based on enlightenment principles, which included various political, social, and educational changes.

  • Centralization of Power: While they embraced Enlightenment ideas, they still maintained strong, centralized control over their states.

Major Principles Advocated by Enlightened Despots

  • Freedom of Religion: Many enlightened despots championed the principle of religious tolerance, allowing individuals the freedom to practice their faith without persecution.

  • Freedom of Speech: They often supported the idea of freedom of expression, promoting more open discussions and the exchange of ideas as a means to improve society.

  • Legal Reforms: Some enlightened despots enacted laws to promote justice and equal treatment under the law, influenced by Enlightenment thinkers.

Examples of Enlightened Despots

  • Frederick the Great of Prussia: Advocated for religious tolerance and legal reforms, believing in rational governance.

  • Catherine the Great of Russia: Worked to modernize Russia and implemented various educational and administrative reforms.

Impact of Enlightened Despotism

  • Legacy of Reform: The policies enacted by enlightened despots laid the groundwork for modern states and influenced future democratic movements.

  • Balance between Power and Progress: While they wielded absolute power, enlightened despots attempted to balance it with progressive policies aimed at societal welfare.

Enlightened Despots Overview

  • Definition: Enlightened despots were monarchs who embraced Enlightenment ideas but remained absolute rulers.

  • Key Features:

    • Reason and Rationality: Policies guided by reason.

    • Religious Tolerance: Most enlightened despots supported freedom of religion.

    • Freedom of Speech: Many implemented policies supporting free expression.

    • Limitations: Despite Enlightenment ideals, these rulers maintained their absolute power. They were not fully democratic or constitutional.

Enlightenment Thinkers and Their Influence

  • John Locke:

    • Advocated for limits on rulers’ power and the protection of natural rights (life, liberty, property).

    • Believed that if the government failed to protect these rights, revolution was justified.

    • Why Enlightened Despots Avoid Locke's Ideas: Locke’s support for revolution and limiting the monarch's absolute power conflicted with the goals of absolute rulers.

  • Enlightened Despots’ Stance on Revolution:

    • Enlightened despots, despite being influenced by Enlightenment thinkers, were not willing to accept revolutions or challenges to their power.

Key Enlightened Despots

  1. Catherine the Great of Russia:

    • Enlightened Thought: Well-versed in Enlightenment ideas, corresponded with Voltaire.

    • Challenges: Despite her reformist ideas, Russia was politically backward, with no established meritocracy or support for reforms.

    • Pugachev’s Rebellion: After this massive peasant revolt, Catherine ceased her attempts at reform.

    • Nobility’s Influence: She needed the support of the nobility (boyars), which made reforms difficult.

    • Rise to Power: Catherine was not Russian by birth, but through her marriage to Peter III, she ascended to the throne. Peter III was incompetent and mysteriously died (possibly with Catherine’s involvement), allowing her to take control.

  2. Frederick the Great of Prussia:

    • Military Background: Raised with intense military training and ruled Prussia with a strong military focus.

    • Reforms: Embraced Enlightenment ideals like rational governance, but his main focus remained strengthening Prussia.

    • Frederick’s Quote: "I am the first servant to the state." This indicated a sense of duty to the state over personal glory.

    • Pragmatic Sanction: Frederick’s father used military intimidation for political gain, and Frederick the Great continued this aggressive foreign policy, violating the Pragmatic Sanction to take Silesia from Austria.

    • War Strategy: Noted for his military strategy, Frederick famously defeated the French despite their larger army, focusing on battlefield knowledge and espionage rather than sheer numbers.

  3. Joseph II of Austria:

    • Key Reforms: Religious tolerance, freedom of the press, and centralization of power. However, his reforms met resistance from the nobility and church.

    • Legacy: Joseph's reforms had mixed results, and his successors rolled back many of his changes.

  4. Maria Theresa of Austria:

    • Reforms: While she didn't fully embrace Enlightenment policies like religious tolerance, she improved education and managed a bureaucratic government.

    • Limitations: Her lack of support for religious tolerance (anti-Semitic policies) and her absolute rule placed her outside the typical "enlightened despot" mold.

    • Pragmatic Sanction: Her father, Charles VI, negotiated the Pragmatic Sanction to ensure her succession as Empress, despite her being female.

Key Events and Conflicts

  • Silesian Wars:

    • Cause: Frederick the Great violated the Pragmatic Sanction by invading Austrian Silesia, seeking territorial gain for Prussia.

    • Result: Frederick initially achieved impressive victories, but Maria Theresa of Austria managed to regain much of the lost territory. The only territory Prussia permanently held was Silesia.

  • Seven Years’ War:

    • Prussia vs. France: Frederick the Great led Prussia in a series of successful campaigns against France, leveraging superior intelligence and strategy over sheer military strength.

    • French Military Weakness: French generals were often appointed based on wealth or connections, rather than military competence, leading to strategic mistakes.

General Themes

  • Absolute Power: Despite Enlightenment ideals, all the rulers discussed remained absolute monarchs.

  • Practical Limitations: Enlightened despotism was often compromised by the need to maintain power, particularly the need to appease the nobility.

  • Military Influence: Rulers like Frederick the Great and Catherine relied heavily on their military strength and the support of the nobility to maintain their reigns, making true Enlightenment reforms difficult.

Catherine the Great and the Russian Nobility

  • Catherine's Relationship with the Boyars: Catherine's power depended heavily on the support of the nobility (Boyars), as they competed for power in central Europe. She needed their cooperation to maintain her authority.

  • Poland’s Partition: To avoid expensive and bloody wars, Russia, Austria, and Prussia came to a compromise to partition the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The country, situated between these three major powers, was seen as an easy target. Poland was partitioned on three occasions:

    1. 1772

    2. 1793

    3. 1795

    By 1795, Poland ceased to exist as an independent state. These partitions were made easier by the actions of Polish nobility, who, through a system called the Liberum Veto, could block legislative decisions, sometimes preventing reforms and weakening the state.

  • Impact on Poland: Poland's independence ended in 1795, and it did not reemerge as a country until 1918. Despite this, Polish culture and national identity were maintained by its people, though the practice of Polish religion and culture was repressed, especially under Russian rule.

  • Catherine’s Use of War: Catherine the Great often used military expansion to solidify her power. Wars were popular among the Boyars, and this helped Catherine maintain their support.

  • Saint Petersburg: Catherine worked to develop Saint Petersburg, making it one of Europe’s most beautiful cities. She also amassed an impressive art collection, founding the Hermitage Museum, which is considered one of the largest and most significant art collections in the world.

  • The Charter of Nobility (1785): This law codified the rights of the Russian nobility, securing their privileges and making them almost permanent. It was a major reversal of policies from previous reforms, such as those of Peter the Great, who tried to reduce noble power.

  • Catherine’s Lovers: Catherine was known for taking charismatic lovers whom she would shower with gifts, such as large rubies or lands. These gifts were often political tools to secure loyalty from the nobility. However, this also created potential for jealousy, as rejection could lead to scandalous rumors.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Philosopher of the Enlightenment and Romanticism

  • Overview of Rousseau: Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a unique and original thinker who bridged the Enlightenment and Romantic periods. He is often regarded as a transitional figure between these intellectual movements.

  • Rousseau’s Background: Born into the middle class in France, Rousseau is known for his famous quote: "Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains." This idea reflects his belief in the inherent freedom of human beings, which is corrupted by society.

  • Rousseau’s Philosophy of Society:

    • Critique of Modern Society: Rousseau believed that modern society was fundamentally flawed. He argued that the natural human condition was corrupted by social structures and values.

    • Philosophy of History: Rousseau explored how humanity's descent into civilization led to inequality and oppression, straying from its natural, harmonious state.

    • The Problem of Modern Civilization: Rousseau saw modern society as “phony.” He felt that human beings, despite their advanced minds and tools (e.g., opposable thumbs), still had animalistic needs (feed, fight, and reproduce). However, in modern society, when humans engage in these basic instincts (e.g., feeding too much = gluttony), society condemns them for their actions.

  • Human Nature and Social Critique:

    • "Good Man, Bad Citizen": Rousseau believed that while individuals could be inherently good, they were corrupted by societal expectations and norms. He criticized how society punishes basic human instincts.

    • Authenticity vs. Society’s Expectations: Rousseau argued that society’s values (e.g., wealth, property, education) were inauthentic, and that humans should pursue life based on their natural instincts, emotions, and desires rather than societal pressures.

  • Rousseau’s Personal Life: His personal life mirrored some of his philosophies. He rejected traditional relationships, had children with various women, and gave them up for adoption. His behavior often seemed eccentric and even extreme. He believed in being authentic, even if this meant acting outside social norms, like engaging in wild behavior such as arguing with walls.

  • Key Quotes:

    • "Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains."

    • "I am a good man, but a bad citizen."

  • Philosophical Influence: Rousseau's ideas would heavily influence both Enlightenment and Romantic thinkers. His views on the natural state of man and the impact of civilization on human freedom would help shape future political and philosophical developments.

Key Points for Review:

  • Catherine the Great: Strongly reliant on the support of the Boyars, used military expansion, made Saint Petersburg a cultural hub, and enacted the Charter of Nobility.

  • Rousseau's Influence: A key figure in the transition from the Enlightenment to Romanticism, Rousseau critiqued society for corrupting natural human instincts and advocating for a return to authenticity.