A Dividing Nation Notes

A Dividing Nation

Introduction

In 1860, Abraham Lincoln was elected president, facing a nation on the brink of civil war due to divisions over slavery.
The issue of slavery originated with the arrival of the first enslaved Africans in Virginia in 1619.
By 1860, slavery had ended in half of the United States, but its expansion into new territories remained a contentious issue.
Lincoln initially hesitated to act against slavery but recognized its fundamental immorality, stating, "If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong."
From 1820 to 1860, various compromises were attempted to maintain unity amid deep divisions over slavery.

Confronting the Issue of Slavery

Westward expansion after the War of 1812 led to the formation of new states.
The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 banned slavery north of the Ohio River, resulting in free states like Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois.
Southern states formed south of the Ohio River (Kentucky, Tennessee, Louisiana, and Mississippi) allowed slavery.
In 1819, Alabama and Missouri applied for statehood as states that would allow slavery, with Alabama's admission facing no opposition due to its location.
Congress maintained a balance between states allowing and prohibiting slavery until Illinois' admission as a free state in 1818.
The admission of Alabama as a state that allowed slavery was a key step in restoring this balance.

Questions About Missouri

The question arose whether Missouri should be admitted as a state with slavery, as most of it was located north of the Ohio River
Some feared that allowing Missouri to enter the Union as a state would lead to slavery spreading across all of the Louisiana Territory.

The Tallmadge Amendment

Representative James Tallmadge of New York proposed an amendment stating that Missouri could only join the Union as a free state.
Southerners in Congress protested, arguing that Congress did not have the power to decide whether a new state should legalize slavery.
They advocated for states' rights, asserting that each state should decide the issue of slavery for itself.

A Deadlocked Congress

Southerners worried that if Congress could end slavery in Missouri, it might try to end it elsewhere.
The North had more votes in the House, while the South had equal voting power in the Senate.
If Missouri entered as a free state, the South would lose its ability to block antislavery bills in the Senate, potentially leading to the end of slavery and economic disaster.
The Tallmadge Amendment ignited strong antislavery feelings in the North, with many condemning slavery as immoral and unconstitutional.
The House approved the Tallmadge Amendment, but it was defeated in the Senate, resulting in a deadlock as the 1819 session closed.
In 1819, there were 11 states where enslavement was allowed and 11 states that banned enslavement, which was threatened when Missouri applied for statehood as a state that would allow enslavement.

The Missouri Compromise

In 1820, Congress resumed debate on Missouri statehood, complicated by Maine's application to enter as a free state.
Southerners threatened secession and civil war if the Tallmadge Amendment persisted.

A Compromise Is Reached

Henry Clay of Kentucky crafted the Missouri Compromise of 1820, admitting Missouri as a state with slavery and Maine as a state without slavery.
Congress drew an imaginary line across the Louisiana Purchase at latitude $36°30'$ , banning slavery north of the line except in Missouri, and permitting it south of the line.

Reactions to the Compromise

The Missouri Compromise maintained the Union but satisfied few; Northerners resented the acceptance of Missouri as a state with slavery, while Southerners resented the ban on slavery in territories.
John Quincy Adams recognized the compromise did not resolve the larger issue of slavery, stating, "If the Union must be dissolved, slavery is precisely the question on which it ought to break. For the present, however, the contest is laid asleep."
The Missouri Compromise admitted Missouri as a state with slavery and Maine as a state without slavery, and slavery was prohibited north of the $36°30'$ parallel, except for in Missouri, with slavery being allowed south of this parallel.

The Missouri Compromise Unravels

The Second Great Awakening intensified the slavery debate, as religious leaders framed abolition as "the Lord’s work."

The “Gag Rule”

During the 1830s, Congress tabled antislavery petitions due to the "gag rule," silencing debate over slavery.
John Quincy Adams proposed an amendment to gradually end slavery, but Congress refused to consider it.

Southern Fears

Abolitionist efforts to free enslaved people angered White Southerners, leading to strict laws controlling enslaved people's movement.
Mississippi offered a reward of $5,000$ for anyone circulating abolitionist ideas.

Escaping Enslavement

Enslaved people resisted through revolts like Nat Turner’s rebellion and by escaping to the North with aid from abolitionists.
Enslavers sought a federal law to force the return of fugitives.

Slavery in the Territories

In 1846, the Wilmot Proviso proposed banning slavery in territories acquired from Mexico but was rejected by the Senate.

Statehood for California

California applied for admission as a free state in 1849, leading to deadlock in Congress and renewed threats of secession from the South.

The Compromise of 1850

In 1850, Henry Clay proposed a new compromise to resolve the deadlock over California, seeking support from Daniel Webster.

Something for Each Side

The Compromise of 1850 admitted California as a free state, allowed New Mexico and Utah territories to decide on slavery, ended the slave trade in Washington, D.C., and called for a strong fugitive slave law.

The Compromise Is Accepted

Congress adopted Clay's plan in September 1850, but tensions remained, and the Whig Party dissolved due to moral objections to slavery.
The Compromise of 1850 admitted California as a state without slavery and allowed the southwestern territories to be set up without restriction on enslavement.

The Compromise of 1850 Fails

The Fugitive Slave Act was unpopular in both the North and the South.
Northerners resisted enforcing the Fugitive Slave Act, while Southerners felt it was inadequate.
The Fugitive Slave Act denied legal rights to those accused of being runaways, leading many to flee to Canada.
The Fugitive Slave Act penalized those who aided fugitives, compelling some Northerners to participate in the system of slavery.
Resistance to the Fugitive Slave Act in the North made its enforcement difficult.

Uncle Tom's Cabin

Harriet Beecher Stowe’s novel "Uncle Tom’s Cabin" exposed the horrors of slavery to Northerners.
The story follows Uncle Tom, an enslaved man, and his cruel enslaver, Simon Legree.
The book tells of Eliza, an fleeing enslavement with her child, escaping to freedom across the Ohio River. It tells of Legree ordering Uncle Tom to be beaten to death after Tom refuses to tell him the whereabouts of two enslaved women in hiding.
While influential, Stowe’s work was criticized for reinforcing racist stereotypes.
In the South, the novel was condemned, while in the North, it bolstered the abolitionist cause.

The Ostend Manifesto and the Kansas-Nebraska Act

The Ostend Manifesto and the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 sparked outrage among Northerners, further fueling the sectional divide.
The Ostend Manifesto suggested the U.S. seize Cuba if Spain refused to sell it, alarming Northerners who feared the expansion of slavery.
Senator Stephen A. Douglas introduced the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which allowed settlers to decide on slavery in the Kansas and Nebraska territories through popular sovereignty.
The Kansas-Nebraska Act effectively repealed the Missouri Compromise and led to visions of slavery spreading across the plains, alarming abolitionists and Northerners.

Bloodshed in Kansas

The Kansas-Nebraska Act led to violence in Kansas as proslavery and antislavery settlers clashed.
Proslavery settlers raided Lawrence, Kansas, leading to retaliatory actions by abolitionist John Brown.
John Brown and his followers murdered five men at Pottawatomie Creek, escalating the conflict.

Violence in Congress

Senator Charles Sumner's condemnation of the violence in Kansas and criticism of Southern senators led to his assault by Representative Preston Brooks.
Brooks beat Sumner with a cane on the Senate floor, highlighting the deep divisions in the country.
Reactions to the attack reflected the sectional divide, with many Southerners applauding Brooks' actions and Northerners condemning the brutality.

The Dred Scott Decision

In 1857, the Supreme Court addressed the issue of slavery in the Dred Scott case, concerning a formerly enslaved man from Missouri.

Questions of the Case

The Supreme Court had to decide whether Dred Scott, as an enslaved man, was a citizen with the right to sue in federal court, and whether his time in Wisconsin made him a free man.

Two Judicial Bombshells

The Court ruled that Scott could not sue for his freedom because Black people were not considered citizens under the Constitution.
The Court also declared the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional, asserting that Congress lacked the power to ban slavery in the territories.
The decision was celebrated by enslavers but sparked outrage among abolitionists and Northerners.
As a result of the Dred Scott decision, enslavement was allowed in all territories, since the Court claimed that banning enslavement in certain territories was unconstitutional since it did not protect what they determined to be the property rights of enslavers.

From Compromise to Crisis

Antislavery activists formed the Republican Party, advocating for the prohibition of slavery in the territories and the protection of the rights of Black citizens.
Abraham Lincoln, a Republican, challenged Stephen Douglas in the 1858 Illinois Senate race, emphasizing the moral issue of slavery.

The Lincoln-Douglas Debates

During the Lincoln-Douglas debates, Lincoln argued that slavery was a moral issue, while Douglas maintained that territories should decide the issue for themselves.
Lincoln lost the election, but the debates brought the moral dimensions of slavery into sharp focus.

John Brown’s Raid

Abolitionist John Brown attempted to seize the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, to arm enslaved people for a rebellion.
Brown’s raid was unsuccessful, and he was executed for treason, but his actions inspired many abolitionists.
John Brown's raid heightened tensions when it increased Southerners fear and Northern admiration over Brown's actions.

The Election of 1860 and Secession

The 1860 presidential election exposed the deep divisions within the nation, with the Democrats split between Northern and Southern factions.

Abraham Lincoln Is Elected President

Lincoln won the presidency with only $40$ percent of the vote, primarily from the North, signaling the South's loss of political power within the Union

The South Secedes from the Union

Following Lincoln’s election, South Carolina and six other Southern states seceded from the Union, forming the Confederate States of America.

The Civil War Begins

On March 4, 1861, Lincoln was inaugurated as president of a divided nation.
Confederate forces fired on Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina, on April 12, 1861, marking the beginning of the Civil War.
The opening shots of the Civil War were fired at Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861
News of the attack on Fort Sumter galvanized the North and ended any remaining hopes of compromise

Investigating Primary Sources

By 1854, the United States consisted of 31 states with differences among the states that created tensions so strong they threatened to tear the nation apart.
The natural resources and new railroad lines in the North led people there to work in factories while the fertile soil and warm climate of the South led most people there to make their living by farming.
Southerners felt strongly about the life they had created for themselves, built largely on the enslavement of generations of Black people while Northerners believed that enslavement was immoral and had to be stopped.
In 1850, 16 states had outlawed slavery, and 15 states permitted it.
As the nation added western territories, the question of whether slavery would be permitted in these new areas persisted.
Southerners wanted to allow enslavement in the new territories, but Northerners disagreed.
Abolitionists recruited settlers from the East to live in Kansas and keep out enslavers. These recruits were called Free-Soilers.

Political Cartoon: "'Caesar Imperator!' or, The American Gladiators."

The phrase "Caesar Imperator" refers to Julius Caesar, but here it refers to the enslaved Black man in the center of the picture, who is sitting on bales of cotton
The image implies that enslaved people were central to the conflict. The enslaved person is presented differently from the figures representing the North and the South, highlighting their unique position.

Political Cartoon from Punch

On May 18, 1861, shortly after the first battle of the Civil War, Punch, a British humor magazine, published this political cartoon.
The cartoon depicts the Union and the Confederate States of America fighting to the death like ancient Roman gladiators.
The cartoonist suggests that enslavement was the central issue of the conflict, despite claims to the contrary by some politicians.

Image: "The Effects of the Fugitive-Slave-Law"

This image, titled the Effects of the Fugitive-Slave-Law, was published in New York in 1850.
It is signed on the back “Th. Kaufmann,” presumed to be the artist, Theodor Kaufmann.
The powerful drawing, along with quotes from the Bible and the Declaration of Independence, highlights the artist's feelings toward the Fugitive Slave Law.
The emotional drawing and quotes from the Bible and Declaration of Independence on the bottom help convey the artist’s opinion about the Fugitive Slave Law.

The Fugitive Slave Act

The new law harshly punished anyone in the North or South who helped an enslaved person escape or did not assist the men hired to track down people who had escaped enslavement.
The law was intended to weaken the abolitionists' ability to help enslaved people, but it actually emboldened Northern opposition to enslavement because the law required people to protect slavery.
As you examine this picture titled Effects of the Fugitive-Slave-Law that was published in 1850, notice the six armed White men in the corn field who have ambushed four Black men.
Below the image on the left is a quote from the Bible saying: Thou shalt not deliver unto the master his servant which has escaped from his master unto thee. He shall dwell with thee. Even among you in that place which he shall choose in one of thy gates where it liketh him best. Thou shalt not oppress him.
On the right is a quote from the Declaration of Independence stating, "We hold that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness."
In the picture, White men are portrayed as aggressors, while Black men are victims. Abolitionists likely viewed this image as evidence of the law's brutality and injustice. The artist probably opposed the Fugitive Slave Law, and the image and quotations serve to persuade the audience of its inhumanity.

Speech Fragment on Dred Scott Case

Abraham Lincoln believed the Court decided against Dred Scott, the executive department must enforce the decision against Dred Scott.

Secession of Mississippi

Mississippi seceded to protect the institution of slavery, viewing slavery as essential to the world's economy and commerce.

Slavery Divides Boston

Boston was a magnet for people who opposed slavery.
The American Anti-Slavery Society was based in Boston, as was the abolitionist newspaper The Liberator.
But the issue of slavery divided even the people of Boston.

The Fugitive Slave Act

Anthony Burns had been a free man for the months he lived in Boston. Nonetheless, because of the federal Fugitive Slave Act, he was still a fugitive from slavery.
Passed by the U.S. Congress in 1850, the Fugitive Slave Act said that, if captured, people who had escaped slavery must be returned to their enslaver.
Burns’s enslaver had come to Boston to reclaim his “property.” He did so with the full power of the law behind him.

Downtown Boston: Site of Struggles for Liberty

Because Garrison opposed abolition, a pro-slavery mob was trying to capture English anti-slavery speaker George Thompson and turned their attention to Garrison.

Frederick Douglass's Lecture to the Rochester Ladies' Anti-Slavery Society

In the summer of 1851, a small group of women gathered together in Rochester, New York, to become active members in the fight against slavery.
For over a decade, these women of the Rochester Ladies’ Anti-Slavery Society held events annually to sell goods made locally or donated from other abolitionist societies.
The money they raised went to support abolitionist efforts around the country.
As their influence continued to grow, the Rochester Ladies’ Anti-Slavery Society began holding lectures by well-known speakers. Among these speakers was Frederick Douglass.
Frederick Douglass outlined four primary divisions within the anti-slavery movement.
- The Garrisonians, or the American Anti-Slavery Society
- The Anti-Garrisonians, or the American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society
- The Free Soil Party, or Political Abolitionists
- The Liberty Party, or Gerrit Smith School of Abolitionists.