history a level paper 1

The Changing Political Environment, 1917–80

A Changing Presidency

• 1917–1933: Rise and Fall of Republicanism

  • "Return to Normalcy" (Harding) after WWI — isolationism, limited government.

  • Pro-business policies (Coolidge, Hoover).

  • Crash of 1929 and Great Depression damaged Republican reputation.

• Roosevelt's Influence (FDR)

  • Expanded federal government with the New Deal.

  • Set precedent for active presidential leadership.

  • Fireside chats: use of media to connect with public.

• Changing Presidential Styles, 1945–72

  • Truman: blunt, decisive, Cold War foreign policy (Truman Doctrine).

  • Eisenhower: "Hidden hand" leadership, moderate.

  • Kennedy: Charismatic, media-savvy (e.g., televised debates).

  • Johnson: "Great Society" reforms, but Vietnam damaged reputation.

  • Nixon: "Imperial Presidency", Watergate scandal undermined trust.

• Decline in Confidence, 1968–80

  • Vietnam War failures, Watergate, economic stagnation ("stagflation").

  • Carter struggled with public confidence — "crisis of confidence" speech.

Influences on the Political Landscape

• Rugged Individualism to New Deal Ideas

  • 1920s: Rugged individualism (Hoover); minimal government help.

  • 1930s: New Deal shift — government responsible for economic welfare.

• Red Scares and Anti-Communism

  • 1st Red Scare (1919–20): fear of Bolshevism after Russian Revolution.

  • 2nd Red Scare (1940s–50s): McCarthyism, HUAC, anti-communist hysteria.

• Liberalism, Counter-culture, Conservative Reaction (c1960–80)

  • 1960s: Civil rights movement, anti-war protests, women's liberation.

  • 1970s: Conservative backlash (Nixon’s "Silent Majority").

  • Rise of New Right conservatism.

Impact of War on Domestic Politics

• Return to 'Normalcy' and Isolationism (1917–41)

  • Focus on domestic recovery post-WWI.

  • Avoidance of European alliances (e.g., rejecting League of Nations).

• US as Cold War Superpower (from 1941)

  • WWII victory → global leadership.

  • Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan, NATO.

• Korean and Vietnam Wars

  • Korea (1950–53): "Police Action", boosted military spending.

  • Vietnam (1955–75): Massive domestic unrest; credibility gap.

The Quest for Civil Rights, 1917–80

Black American Civil Rights, 1917–55

• Life in the South/Northern Migration (1917–32)

  • Jim Crow laws: segregation, disenfranchisement.

  • Great Migration: black Americans moving North for jobs, escaping racism.

• Impact of New Deal, WWII, Truman Presidency

  • New Deal often excluded black workers, but some benefits gained.

  • WWII: "Double V" campaign (victory against fascism abroad and racism at home).

  • Truman: Desegregation of the military (1948); beginnings of federal support.

• Legal Challenge to Direct Action (1917–55)

  • NAACP legal campaigns (e.g., Brown v Board, 1954).

Black American Civil Rights, 1955–80

• Changing Approaches (1955–68)

  • Southern non-violent protests: Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955–56), Freedom Rides (1961), Birmingham Campaign (1963).

  • Black Power movement (Malcolm X, SNCC radicalisation).

• Civil Rights Legislation (1955–80)

  • Civil Rights Act (1964): ended segregation.

  • Voting Rights Act (1965): ended literacy tests, protected black voters.

  • Achievements limited by economic inequality and ongoing racism.

Search for Minority Rights, 1960–80

• Native American Campaigns

  • AIM (American Indian Movement), Alcatraz Occupation (1969).

• Hispanic American Campaigns

  • Cesar Chavez, United Farm Workers, strikes for labor rights.

• Gay Rights Movement

  • Stonewall Riots (1969) key turning point; push for anti-discrimination laws.

• Achievements and Limits

  • Gains in visibility and rights, but widespread discrimination remained.

Society and Culture in Change, 1917–80

Changing Position of Women

• 1917–60

  • 1920s: Flappers symbolised new freedoms, but mostly for young, urban women.

  • Great Depression: Women often forced out of jobs.

  • WWII: "Rosie the Riveter"; women worked in war industries.

  • Post-war: Return to domestic roles in 1950s suburban boom.

• Emergence of Women's Liberation Movement

  • 1960s: Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique (1963).

  • National Organization for Women (NOW).

  • Roe v Wade (1973) — legalised abortion.

• Extent of Advancement (1961–80)

  • Gains in employment, education, legal rights.

  • ERA (Equal Rights Amendment) stalled.

Impact of Immigration

• 1920s

  • Emergency Quota Act (1921), National Origins Act (1924): restricted immigration.

• Impact on Urban Life (1919–41)

  • Immigrants lived in ethnic neighborhoods; tensions with natives.

• WWII and Aftermath (1941–80)

  • Mexican laborers ("Bracero Program").

  • 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act: ended racial quotas, allowed more non-European immigrants.

Influence of Popular Culture and News Media

• 1917–50

  • Rise of cinema (Hollywood); escapism during Depression.

  • Radio popularised national culture.

• From 1950s Onward

  • Television became dominant; mass culture (e.g., sitcoms, soap operas).

  • News broadcast crises live: e.g., JFK assassination, Vietnam War protests, Watergate.

• Broadcast News Influence (1920–80)

  • Brought politics into homes; trust in government fell after Vietnam/Watergate.

🇺🇸 AMERICAN DREAM 1917–80 – DETAILED NOTES (for essays)

🏛 The Changing Political Environment, 1917–80

A Changing Presidency

• Rise and Decline of Republicanism (1917–1933)

  • Warren Harding (1921–23):

    • Promoted "Return to Normalcy" (focus on domestic issues after WWI).

    • Pro-business policies, tax cuts, limited government intervention.

    • Scandals (Teapot Dome) damaged credibility.

  • Calvin Coolidge (1923–29):

    • "The business of America is business."

    • Minimal government role; laissez-faire economy.

    • Prosperity for some, widening inequality.

  • Herbert Hoover (1929–33):

    • Continued minimal intervention policies.

    • Stock Market Crash 1929 → Great Depression.

    • Ineffectiveness during depression led to collapse of Republican dominance.

• Influence of Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933–45)

  • New Deal policies reshaped role of federal government (relief, recovery, reform).

  • Fireside chats: created direct communication between President and people.

  • Shift from "hands-off" to active government intervention to tackle crises.

  • WWII: expanded presidential powers massively (Commander-in-Chief role).

• Changing Styles of Presidential Leadership (1945–72)

  • Harry Truman (1945–53):

    • Fair Deal program (civil rights, health insurance proposals).

    • Cold War foreign policy (Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan).

    • Assertive leadership; unpopular at times due to Korean War.

  • Dwight Eisenhower (1953–61):

    • Moderate Republicanism ("Dynamic Conservatism").

    • Interstate Highway Act; maintained New Deal programs.

    • Hidden-hand leadership: low profile but influential behind scenes.

  • John F. Kennedy (1961–63):

    • "New Frontier" domestic program: ambitious but limited success.

    • Charismatic media presence (first televised debates against Nixon).

    • Assassinated in 1963.

  • Lyndon B. Johnson (1963–69):

    • "Great Society": Civil Rights Act 1964, Voting Rights Act 1965, Medicare.

    • Escalated Vietnam War → domestic protests and loss of trust.

  • Richard Nixon (1969–74):

    • "New Federalism" — reduce size of federal government.

    • Watergate Scandal led to resignation; distrust of government increased.

• Decline in Confidence (1968–80)

  • Vietnam War exposed "credibility gap" between government claims and reality.

  • Watergate scandal (1972–74) eroded public trust in the presidency.

  • Economic crises: stagflation, oil shocks, rising unemployment.

  • Gerald Ford (1974–77): Pardoned Nixon, causing further distrust.

  • Jimmy Carter (1977–81): Promised honesty but failed to handle inflation, energy crisis, and Iran hostage crisis.

  • Growing belief that American Dream was no longer attainable.

Influences on the Political Landscape

• Rugged Individualism to New Deal Ideas

  • 1920s: Emphasis on self-reliance, minimal government.

  • 1930s: FDR’s New Deal: belief that government must intervene to secure basic welfare, create jobs, and regulate capitalism.

• Red Scares and Anti-Communism

  • First Red Scare (1919–20): After Bolshevik Revolution; fear of anarchists and communists; Palmer Raids.

  • Second Red Scare (1940s–50s): Cold War tensions; House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC); McCarthyism.

    • Impact: loyalty oaths, blacklists, Hollywood Ten.

• Liberalism, Counter-Culture, Conservative Reaction (c1960–80)

  • 1960s: Civil Rights, feminist, gay rights movements → Liberal activism.

  • Counterculture: rejection of traditional norms (e.g., Hippie Movement, protests against Vietnam War).

  • Conservative backlash: Nixon’s "Silent Majority" and rise of Reagan conservatism.

Impact of War on Domestic Politics

• Return to 'Normalcy' and Isolationism (1917–41)

  • Rejection of Wilson’s internationalism (Senate rejected joining League of Nations).

  • 1920s: Immigration quotas (Emergency Quota Act 1921; National Origins Act 1924).

• Emergence as Cold War Superpower (from 1941)

  • WWII victory gave U.S. global dominance.

  • Formation of UN, NATO; leadership in postwar reconstruction (Marshall Plan).

• Impact of Korea and Vietnam Wars

  • Korea: Truman seen as weak; limited war led to political division.

  • Vietnam:

    • Mass anti-war movement.

    • Media coverage showed brutality (e.g., My Lai Massacre, Tet Offensive).

    • Damaged presidency (especially Johnson and Nixon).

✊ The Quest for Civil Rights, 1917–80

Black American Civil Rights, 1917–55

• Life in the South and Northern Migration

  • Jim Crow laws enforced segregation; voting restrictions (literacy tests, poll taxes).

  • Great Migration: 1.5 million black Americans moved north for better opportunities, but still faced discrimination.

• Impact of New Deal, WWII, and Truman

  • New Deal programs often discriminated against black workers, but some aid available.

  • WWII: Executive Order 8802 banned racial discrimination in defense industries.

  • Truman desegregated the military (1948); pushed for anti-lynching laws (failed).

• From Legal Challenge to Direct Action

  • NAACP: focused on legal challenges (e.g., Brown v. Board of Education 1954 — desegregation ruling).

  • Foundation laid for later mass movements.

Black American Civil Rights, 1955–80

• Changing Patterns and Approaches (1955–68)

  • Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955–56): Rosa Parks; led by Martin Luther King Jr.; success in ending segregation on buses.

  • Sit-ins and Freedom Rides: Non-violent direct action spread across South.

  • March on Washington (1963): "I Have a Dream" speech.

  • Black Power: Rise of militancy (e.g., Malcolm X, Black Panthers).

• Civil Rights Legislation (1955–80)

  • Civil Rights Act (1964): Banned discrimination in public places, employment.

  • Voting Rights Act (1965): Ended barriers to black voting.

  • Fair Housing Act (1968): Banned discrimination in housing.

  • Limits: De facto segregation, economic inequality persisted.

Search for Minority Rights, 1960–80

• Native Americans

  • American Indian Movement (AIM) formed (1968); Alcatraz Occupation (1969).

  • Wanted sovereignty and self-determination.

• Hispanic Americans

  • Cesar Chavez: farm workers’ rights; United Farm Workers union; grape boycotts.

• Gay Rights Movement

  • Stonewall Riots (1969) triggered activist movement (Gay Liberation Front, campaigns for legal rights).

• Achievements and Limits

  • Some recognition and rights achieved, but discrimination persisted.

  • Native Americans gained some land rights; Hispanic Americans secured better labor conditions.

🎭 Society and Culture in Change, 1917–80

Changing Position of Women

• 1917–60

  • 1920s: Flappers symbolized a new social freedom (but limited mainly to middle-class whites).

  • Depression: Women often blamed for "taking jobs".

  • WWII: Women entered industrial workforce ("Rosie the Riveter").

  • Postwar: Encouraged back into domestic roles ("suburban housewife" ideal).

• Emergence of Women’s Liberation Movement

  • 1960s: Second-wave feminism.

  • Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique (1963) inspired dissatisfaction with traditional roles.

  • NOW (1966): Campaigned for equal rights (work, education, reproductive rights).

• Extent of Advancement (1961–80)

  • Title IX (1972) banned sex discrimination in education.

  • Roe v Wade (1973) legalised abortion nationwide.

  • ERA (Equal Rights Amendment) passed Congress but failed to be ratified.

Impact of Immigration

• 1920s

  • Immigration Acts limited entry mainly to Northern and Western Europeans.

  • Rise of xenophobia (e.g., Sacco and Vanzetti case).

• Impact on Urban Life (1919–41)

  • Ethnic enclaves grew; tensions over jobs and housing.

• WWII and Post-War Era (1941–80)

  • Bracero Program allowed Mexican laborers to work in U.S.

  • 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act abolished racial quotas: increased immigration from Asia, Latin America.

Influence of Popular Culture and News Media

• Cinema, Popular Music, Radio (1917–50)

  • Hollywood became global film capital.

  • Radio connected Americans; major influence during Depression (Fireside chats).

• Impact of Television (1950s onward)

  • Sitcoms (e.g., I Love Lucy), national news, presidential debates (JFK vs Nixon, 1960).

  • TV coverage helped Civil Rights Movement (images of brutality shocked Americans).

• Broadcast News Influence (1920–80)

  • Vietnam War first "televised war" — images of fighting, protests.

  • Watergate hearings broadcast live; undermined trust in politicians.