Exhaustive Analysis of Adverse Digital Incorporation and Digital Inequality

</p><h3id="7b458f9c−ff34−461b−9f53−780c253a95dc"data−toc−id="7b458f9c−ff34−461b−9f53−780c253a95dc"collapsed="false"seolevelmigrated="true">PerspectivesontheRelationshipBetweenDigitalizationandInequality</h3><ul><li><p><strong>HistoricalEvolutionofParadigms</strong>:</p><ul><li><p><strong>InitialModernizationPerspective</strong>:Inthelate</p><h3 id="7b458f9c-ff34-461b-9f53-780c253a95dc" data-toc-id="7b458f9c-ff34-461b-9f53-780c253a95dc" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Perspectives on the Relationship Between Digitalization and Inequality</h3><ul><li><p><strong>Historical Evolution of Paradigms</strong>:</p><ul><li><p><strong>Initial Modernization Perspective</strong>: In the late20^{th}century(century (1970sandearlys and early1980s), digital technology was viewed positively as a means to reduce global inequalities between the global North and the "Third World" (Bennett & Kalman, 1981).</p></li><li><p><strong>EmergenceofNegativePerspectives</strong>:Concernsaroseinthemid−).</p></li><li><p><strong>Emergence of Negative Perspectives</strong>: Concerns arose in the mid-1980sthatthoseunabletoaccesstechnologywouldsufferrelativelosses,increasinginequalities(Reddi,s that those unable to access technology would suffer relative losses, increasing inequalities (Reddi,1986; Schware & Choudhury, 1988).</p></li><li><p><strong>Manifestationofthe"DigitalDivide"</strong>:Crystallizedinthemid−).</p></li><li><p><strong>Manifestation of the "Digital Divide"</strong>: Crystallized in the mid-1990s,thistermbecamecentraltointernationaldevelopmentdiscourse,initiallyunderstoodinManicheantermsasadualismbetween"haves"and"have−nots."</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>TheExpandedViewoftheDigitalDivide</strong>:</p><ul><li><p><strong>ForwardExpansion(InformationValueChain)</strong>:Focusshiftedfrombasictechnologyaccessandadoptiontoincludedividesintechnologyuse,oftendrivenbydifferencesinuserknowledgeandskills.</p></li><li><p><strong>Backward/OutwardExpansion</strong>:Theconceptualizationencompassescontextualsocialinequalities(race,gender,income,disability)astheprecursorsorcausesofthedivide,leadingtotheterm"digitalinequality."</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>DominanceoftheExclusionNarrative</strong>:Areviewofrecentliteratureondigitalinequality(s, this term became central to international development discourse, initially understood in Manichean terms as a dualism between "haves" and "have-nots."</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>The Expanded View of the Digital Divide</strong>:</p><ul><li><p><strong>Forward Expansion (Information Value Chain)</strong>: Focus shifted from basic technology access and adoption to include divides in technology use, often driven by differences in user knowledge and skills.</p></li><li><p><strong>Backward/Outward Expansion</strong>: The conceptualization encompasses contextual social inequalities (race, gender, income, disability) as the precursors or causes of the divide, leading to the term "digital inequality."</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>Dominance of the Exclusion Narrative</strong>: A review of recent literature on digital inequality (2015-2021)confirmsthatthefoundationalconceptremainsexclusion.Thenarrativepresumesthatinequalityiscausedbyspecificgroupsbeingshutoutfromtheinternet() confirms that the foundational concept remains exclusion. The narrative presumes that inequality is caused by specific groups being shut out from the internet (Robinson \text{ et al., } 2015)orbeingunabletoaccessincome−generatingopportunities() or being unable to access income-generating opportunities (Ramalingam \& Hernandez, 2016).</p></li></ul><h3id="d9c059a6−b58e−497c−90b5−a78b46b0e0dc"data−toc−id="d9c059a6−b58e−497c−90b5−a78b46b0e0dc"collapsed="false"seolevelmigrated="true">TransitioningfromExclusion−BasedtoInclusion−BasedFrameworks</h3><ul><li><p><strong>TheParadoxofGrowingInclusion</strong>:Whileexclusion−basedanalysisremainsrelevantforthe).</p></li></ul><h3 id="d9c059a6-b58e-497c-90b5-a78b46b0e0dc" data-toc-id="d9c059a6-b58e-497c-90b5-a78b46b0e0dc" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Transitioning from Exclusion-Based to Inclusion-Based Frameworks</h3><ul><li><p><strong>The Paradox of Growing Inclusion</strong>: While exclusion-based analysis remains relevant for the4\text{ billion}peoplewithoutincome−generatingdigitalaccessorthenearlypeople without income-generating digital access or the nearly3\text{ billion}whodonotusetheinternet(ITU,who do not use the internet (ITU,2021),itfailstoexplaininequalitiesamongthemajoritywhoarenowincluded.</p></li><li><p><strong>EvidenceofInclusionaryInequality</strong>:Inequalityisincreasinglyassociatedwiththosefullyintegratedintodigitalsystems,suchasworkersinthegigeconomy,smallfarmersontradingplatforms,anddigitallymappedcommunities(), it fails to explain inequalities among the majority who are now included.</p></li><li><p><strong>Evidence of Inclusionary Inequality</strong>: Inequality is increasingly associated with those fully integrated into digital systems, such as workers in the gig economy, small farmers on trading platforms, and digitally mapped communities (Gurumurthy \text{ et al., } 2019).

  • Basis in Chronic Poverty Literature: To address this conceptual gap, the paper draws on the concept of "adverse incorporation" from development studies (Hickey & du Toit, 2013).Thisperspectivelinkstheinequalityofpovertyto"unfavorableinclusion"(Sen,). This perspective links the inequality of poverty to "unfavorable inclusion" (Sen,2000)ratherthansimplesocialexclusion.</p></li><li><p><strong>InductiveMethodology</strong>:Thepaperderivesitsmodelthroughathree−stepprocess:</p><ul><li><p>Identifyingkeyconceptsfromexistingadverseincorporationliterature.</p></li><li><p>Illustratingandrefiningtheseconceptsusingdigitaldevelopmentcases.</p></li><li><p>Synthesizingconceptsintoasystemicmodel.</p></li></ul></li></ul><h3id="5ae55acc−351e−41e5−989a−f4b8b5489282"data−toc−id="5ae55acc−351e−41e5−989a−f4b8b5489282"collapsed="false"seolevelmigrated="true">ConceptualizingAdverseDigitalIncorporation(ADI)</h3><ul><li><p><strong>VerbatimDefinition</strong>:AdverseDigitalIncorporationisdefinedas"inclusioninadigitalsystemthatenablesamore−advantagedgrouptoextractdisproportionatevaluefromtheworkorresourcesofanother,less−advantagedgroup."</p></li><li><p><strong>CoreCharacteristics</strong>:</p><ul><li><p><strong>RelationalBasis</strong>:Unlikethedigitaldividewhichcompareshomologs(uservs.non−user),ADIanalyzestherelationshipbetweendifferentroles(ownervs.user;datauservs.dataprovider).</p></li><li><p><strong>Production−CenteredView</strong>:Focusesonhowusersproducevaluethroughdata,knowledge,orlabor,ratherthanmerelyconsuminginformationorservices.</p></li><li><p><strong>TemporalandContextualNature</strong>:Recognizesthatadverseoutcomesareshapedbyhistoricalpatternsofexclusionfromalternativesystems.</p></li></ul></li></ul><h3id="5ea5bf58−5cd0−4d56−9acc−3ac7100138ab"data−toc−id="5ea5bf58−5cd0−4d56−9acc−3ac7100138ab"collapsed="false"seolevelmigrated="true">ProcessPatternsofUnequalDigitalIncorporation</h3><ul><li><p><strong>Exploitation</strong>:Theunfairextractionofeconomicvalue.</p><ul><li><p><strong>Example</strong>:GigeconomyworkersinSouthAfricaearningbelowthelivingwagewhileplatformsextractfinancialvaluefromtheirlabor(Fairwork,) rather than simple social exclusion.</p></li><li><p><strong>Inductive Methodology</strong>: The paper derives its model through a three-step process:</p><ul><li><p>Identifying key concepts from existing adverse incorporation literature.</p></li><li><p>Illustrating and refining these concepts using digital development cases.</p></li><li><p>Synthesizing concepts into a systemic model.</p></li></ul></li></ul><h3 id="5ae55acc-351e-41e5-989a-f4b8b5489282" data-toc-id="5ae55acc-351e-41e5-989a-f4b8b5489282" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Conceptualizing Adverse Digital Incorporation (ADI)</h3><ul><li><p><strong>Verbatim Definition</strong>: Adverse Digital Incorporation is defined as "inclusion in a digital system that enables a more-advantaged group to extract disproportionate value from the work or resources of another, less-advantaged group."</p></li><li><p><strong>Core Characteristics</strong>:</p><ul><li><p><strong>Relational Basis</strong>: Unlike the digital divide which compares homologs (user vs. non-user), ADI analyzes the relationship between different roles (owner vs. user; data user vs. data provider).</p></li><li><p><strong>Production-Centered View</strong>: Focuses on how users produce value through data, knowledge, or labor, rather than merely consuming information or services.</p></li><li><p><strong>Temporal and Contextual Nature</strong>: Recognizes that adverse outcomes are shaped by historical patterns of exclusion from alternative systems.</p></li></ul></li></ul><h3 id="5ea5bf58-5cd0-4d56-9acc-3ac7100138ab" data-toc-id="5ea5bf58-5cd0-4d56-9acc-3ac7100138ab" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Process Patterns of Unequal Digital Incorporation</h3><ul><li><p><strong>Exploitation</strong>: The unfair extraction of economic value.</p><ul><li><p><strong>Example</strong>: Gig economy workers in South Africa earning below the living wage while platforms extract financial value from their labor (Fairwork,2020).</p></li><li><p><strong>EnterpriseLevel</strong>:AfricantravelagenciesandhotelsparticipatinginglobaltourismmarketsviaplatformslikeTripAdvisor,whichconcentratemarketpowerandaccumulatecapitaloutsideAfrica().</p></li><li><p><strong>Enterprise Level</strong>: African travel agencies and hotels participating in global tourism markets via platforms like TripAdvisor, which concentrate market power and accumulate capital outside Africa (Murphy \& Carmody, 2015).</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>Commodification</strong>:Turningpreviouslyuntradedentitiesintotradeableitems.</p><ul><li><p><strong>Example</strong>:CommercialwebcamsexinthePhilippines,wherethebodiesofwomenandchildrenarecommodifiedforthebenefitofplatformsanddistantconsumers,resultinginlong−termtrauma(Mathews,).</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>Commodification</strong>: Turning previously untraded entities into tradeable items.</p><ul><li><p><strong>Example</strong>: Commercial webcam sex in the Philippines, where the bodies of women and children are commodified for the benefit of platforms and distant consumers, resulting in long-term trauma (Mathews,2017).</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>Cost−Shifting(DistributingNegativeValue)</strong>:</p><ul><li><p><strong>Psycho−socialHarms</strong>:Negativevaluessuchasonlineabuseorcontentmoderationtraumaareloadedontodisadvantagedgroupswhilepositivevaluesremainwithplatforms.</p></li><li><p><strong>FinancialRisk</strong>:TheGrameen"PhoneLadies"programrequiredpoorwomentobuyequipmentupfrontoncredit,shiftingtheriskofsaturatedmarketsontothewomen(Meagher,).</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>Cost-Shifting (Distributing Negative Value)</strong>:</p><ul><li><p><strong>Psycho-social Harms</strong>: Negative values such as online abuse or content moderation trauma are loaded onto disadvantaged groups while positive values remain with platforms.</p></li><li><p><strong>Financial Risk</strong>: The Grameen "Phone Ladies" program required poor women to buy equipment upfront on credit, shifting the risk of saturated markets onto the women (Meagher,2018).</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>CriminalExploitation</strong>:Theextractionofvaluethroughillegalmeans.</p><ul><li><p><strong>Example</strong>:The"Wangiri"phonescam(one−ringscam),whichforcesrecipientstocallbackhigh−costpremiuminternationalnumbers,targetingvictimsinIndonesia,Kenya,andPakistan(Priezkalns,).</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>Criminal Exploitation</strong>: The extraction of value through illegal means.</p><ul><li><p><strong>Example</strong>: The "Wangiri" phone scam (one-ring scam), which forces recipients to call back high-cost premium international numbers, targeting victims in Indonesia, Kenya, and Pakistan (Priezkalns,2020).</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>LegibilityandSubordination</strong>:Providingpowerfulactorswithdatathatenablescontrolorsurveillance.</p><ul><li><p><strong>PoliticalLegibility</strong>:StatesurveillancesystemslikeChina′sSocialCreditSystem,whichintegrateonlinebehaviordatatocreate"data−drivenauthoritarianism"(Lee,).</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>Legibility and Subordination</strong>: Providing powerful actors with data that enables control or surveillance.</p><ul><li><p><strong>Political Legibility</strong>: State surveillance systems like China's Social Credit System, which integrate online behavior data to create "data-driven authoritarianism" (Lee,2019).</p></li><li><p><strong>LaborSurveillance</strong>:FactorymanagersinChinausingmobilephonesasa"wirelessleash"todemandconstantavailabilityandmonitorallemployeemessages().</p></li><li><p><strong>Labor Surveillance</strong>: Factory managers in China using mobile phones as a "wireless leash" to demand constant availability and monitor all employee messages (Qiu, 2009).</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>Enclosure</strong>:Thetransferofcommunalknowledgeorresourcesintoprivateorstate−ownedsystems.</p><ul><li><p><strong>Example</strong>:AUSAID−fundedprojectcaptureddetailsofmedicinalplantsfromtheShuarindigenouscommunityinEcuador;thisknowledgewasthenplacedinaclosed−accesssystemusedbypharmaceuticalcompanieswithoutrecompensetothecommunity().</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>Enclosure</strong>: The transfer of communal knowledge or resources into private or state-owned systems.</p><ul><li><p><strong>Example</strong>: A USAID-funded project captured details of medicinal plants from the Shuar indigenous community in Ecuador; this knowledge was then placed in a closed-access system used by pharmaceutical companies without recompense to the community (Nagan \text{ et al., } 2010).</p></li></ul></li></ul><h3id="f6d8a502−234b−47bc−aea4−7447953c167a"data−toc−id="f6d8a502−234b−47bc−aea4−7447953c167a"collapsed="false"seolevelmigrated="true">DeterminantsandDriversofAdverseIncorporation</h3><ul><li><p><strong>IgnoranceandDeception</strong>:Usersmayjoinanadversesystemwithoutunderstandingthelikelihoodorextentofnegativeconsequences.</p><ul><li><p><strong>Example</strong>:ScamstargetingSouthAsianvictimsusingdeceptiveMiddle−Eastcountrycodestoimplycallsfromrelatives(Javaid,).</p></li></ul></li></ul><h3 id="f6d8a502-234b-47bc-aea4-7447953c167a" data-toc-id="f6d8a502-234b-47bc-aea4-7447953c167a" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Determinants and Drivers of Adverse Incorporation</h3><ul><li><p><strong>Ignorance and Deception</strong>: Users may join an adverse system without understanding the likelihood or extent of negative consequences.</p><ul><li><p><strong>Example</strong>: Scams targeting South Asian victims using deceptive Middle-East country codes to imply calls from relatives (Javaid,2020).</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>DirectCompulsion(Coercion)</strong>:Requirementsbypowerfulactorstoparticipateinasystem.</p><ul><li><p><strong>Example</strong>:India′sAadhaarnationalidentitydatabase,whichbecamecompulsoryforaccessingpublicservices,facilitatingstatesurveillanceandpotentialprivacybreaches(Khera,).</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>Direct Compulsion (Coercion)</strong>: Requirements by powerful actors to participate in a system.</p><ul><li><p><strong>Example</strong>: India's Aadhaar national identity database, which became compulsory for accessing public services, facilitating state surveillance and potential privacy breaches (Khera,2019b).

  • Example: Agricultural finance platforms in Kenya pressuring farmers into data-sharing protocols as a condition for market access (Iazzolino & Mann, 2019).</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>LackofChoice(ExclusionfromAlternatives)</strong>:Joininganadversesystembecausebetteroptionsareunavailable.</p><ul><li><p><strong>Example</strong>:MigrantgigworkersinSouthAfricawhojoinplatformsbecausetheyareexcludedfromformalemploymentduetolegalrequirementsordiscriminatorynorms(Heeksetal.,).</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>Lack of Choice (Exclusion from Alternatives)</strong>: Joining an adverse system because better options are unavailable.</p><ul><li><p><strong>Example</strong>: Migrant gig workers in South Africa who join platforms because they are excluded from formal employment due to legal requirements or discriminatory norms (Heeks et al.,2021).

  • Example: Parents in the Philippines prostituting children online due to absolute poverty and exclusion from welfare systems.

    • Causes of Digital Exploitation: Power and Control Dynamics

    • Design Inequality: Control over the system's processes and governance structures.

      • Contrast: Extractive mapping systems (outsiders taking data) vs. Participative alternatives where communities collect and use their own data (Heeks & Shekhar, 2019).</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>ResourceInequality</strong>:Disparitiesinfinancial,human,social,physical,andinformationalcapital.</p><ul><li><p><strong>Example</strong>:GlobalNorthactorspossessingthecapitalandmachineryneededtomonetizeinformation(liketheShuarplantdata)thatlocalcommunitiescannotexploitthemselves.</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>InstitutionalInequality</strong>:Formallawsandinformalnormsfavoringmore−advantagedgroups.</p><ul><li><p><strong>GlobalValueChains</strong>:LeadfirmsdeterminespecificationsandstandardsthatAfricansmallenterprisesmustfollow,usingdigitalinformationtoswitchsuppliersandincreasevolatilityforthesmalleractors().</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>Resource Inequality</strong>: Disparities in financial, human, social, physical, and informational capital.</p><ul><li><p><strong>Example</strong>: Global North actors possessing the capital and machinery needed to monetize information (like the Shuar plant data) that local communities cannot exploit themselves.</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>Institutional Inequality</strong>: Formal laws and informal norms favoring more-advantaged groups.</p><ul><li><p><strong>Global Value Chains</strong>: Lead firms determine specifications and standards that African small enterprises must follow, using digital information to switch suppliers and increase volatility for the smaller actors (Foster \text{ et al., } 2018).</p></li><li><p><strong>AbsenceofProtection</strong>:Lackofregulatoryoversightforcontentmoderators,childrenincybersex,orgigworkersearningbelowminimumwage.</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>RelationalInequality(AsymmetricalDependency)</strong>:Relativedependencybetweenactors.</p><ul><li><p><strong>LaborSurplus</strong>:Gigplatformscaneasilyreplaceworkersduetoahighlaborreserve,whileworkersmaybehighlydependentontheplatformforincomeordebtrepayment.</p></li><li><p><strong>Atomization</strong>:Thegeneralabsenceoftradeunionsforgigworkerscreatesone−to−onerelationswithplatforms,increasingvulnerabilitytoexploitation(Grahametal.,).</p></li><li><p><strong>Absence of Protection</strong>: Lack of regulatory oversight for content moderators, children in cybersex, or gig workers earning below minimum wage.</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>Relational Inequality (Asymmetrical Dependency)</strong>: Relative dependency between actors.</p><ul><li><p><strong>Labor Surplus</strong>: Gig platforms can easily replace workers due to a high labor reserve, while workers may be highly dependent on the platform for income or debt repayment.</p></li><li><p><strong>Atomization</strong>: The general absence of trade unions for gig workers creates one-to-one relations with platforms, increasing vulnerability to exploitation (Graham et al.,2017).</p></li></ul></li></ul><h3id="984e18e3−5a3d−4e2a−a262−d525d1ac6802"data−toc−id="984e18e3−5a3d−4e2a−a262−d525d1ac6802"collapsed="false"seolevelmigrated="true">TheoreticalDiscussion:RelationalViewsandProduction−CenteredPerspectives</h3><ul><li><p><strong>AgencyandResistance</strong>:Power−basedconceptualizationsallowforuseragency.</p><ul><li><p><strong>Self−Exclusion</strong>:Marginalizedgroups(refugees,undocumentedmigrants)refusingtoregisterwithdigitalsystemstoavoiddeportationoreviction(Heeks,).</p></li></ul></li></ul><h3 id="984e18e3-5a3d-4e2a-a262-d525d1ac6802" data-toc-id="984e18e3-5a3d-4e2a-a262-d525d1ac6802" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Theoretical Discussion: Relational Views and Production-Centered Perspectives</h3><ul><li><p><strong>Agency and Resistance</strong>: Power-based conceptualizations allow for user agency.</p><ul><li><p><strong>Self-Exclusion</strong>: Marginalized groups (refugees, undocumented migrants) refusing to register with digital systems to avoid deportation or eviction (Heeks,2021).</p></li><li><p><strong>Workarounds</strong>:ResidentsinIndiausingarelative′sAadhaaridentityorconductingnon−recordedtransactionstocircumventthesystem′sexclusionaryimpacts(Masiero,).</p></li><li><p><strong>Workarounds</strong>: Residents in India using a relative's Aadhaar identity or conducting non-recorded transactions to circumvent the system's exclusionary impacts (Masiero,2018).</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>DigitalAffordances</strong>:SpecifictechnologicalfeaturesfacilitateADI:</p><ul><li><p><strong>NetworkEffects</strong>:Createtendenciestowardmonopolyandpowerasymmetry.</p></li><li><p><strong>Datafication</strong>:Usersmustprovidedatatoowners,butthereverse(ownertransparency)isnotinherent.</p></li><li><p><strong>AlgorithmicOpacity</strong>:Machinelearningmakesdecisionsopaquetousersbutnottoowners.</p></li></ul></li></ul><h3id="fc5e1423−5815−4e8c−8323−467e761bb48f"data−toc−id="fc5e1423−5815−4e8c−8323−467e761bb48f"collapsed="false"seolevelmigrated="true">FutureDirections:Agency,Resistance,andDigitalJustice</h3><ul><li><p><strong>ResearcherAgenda</strong>:DeductiveapplicationoftheADImodeltospecificcasestudiesandglobal−scaleanalysistodetermineiflow−incomenationsasawholearebeingadverselyincorporatedbytech−powersliketheUS,Europe,andChina.</p></li><li><p><strong>PractitionerAgenda</strong>:Movebeyondtechnicalprocedurestowardimpactingthewiderstructuresofpower.</p><ul><li><p><strong>NeutralDigitalIncorporation</strong>:Designingsystemswherevalueisdistributedevenly.</p></li><li><p><strong>AdvantageousDigitalIncorporation</strong>:Designinginterventionsspecificallytoreduceexistinghistoricalinequalities.</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>TheCallforDigitalJustice</strong>:While"Equity"focusesonequalaccess(digitaldivide),"Justice"seekstoaddressunderlyingsystemiccauses(ADI).</p><ul><li><p><strong>PlatformCooperatives</strong>:CreatingorganizationsintheglobalSouthbasedonstructuralequality,participatorydesign,andsharedresourcesasanalternativetotypicalmarketexploitation().</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>Digital Affordances</strong>: Specific technological features facilitate ADI:</p><ul><li><p><strong>Network Effects</strong>: Create tendencies toward monopoly and power asymmetry.</p></li><li><p><strong>Datafication</strong>: Users must provide data to owners, but the reverse (owner transparency) is not inherent.</p></li><li><p><strong>Algorithmic Opacity</strong>: Machine learning makes decisions opaque to users but not to owners.</p></li></ul></li></ul><h3 id="fc5e1423-5815-4e8c-8323-467e761bb48f" data-toc-id="fc5e1423-5815-4e8c-8323-467e761bb48f" collapsed="false" seolevelmigrated="true">Future Directions: Agency, Resistance, and Digital Justice</h3><ul><li><p><strong>Researcher Agenda</strong>: Deductive application of the ADI model to specific case studies and global-scale analysis to determine if low-income nations as a whole are being adversely incorporated by tech-powers like the US, Europe, and China.</p></li><li><p><strong>Practitioner Agenda</strong>: Move beyond technical procedures toward impacting the wider structures of power.</p><ul><li><p><strong>Neutral Digital Incorporation</strong>: Designing systems where value is distributed evenly.</p></li><li><p><strong>Advantageous Digital Incorporation</strong>: Designing interventions specifically to reduce existing historical inequalities.</p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>The Call for Digital Justice</strong>: While "Equity" focuses on equal access (digital divide), "Justice" seeks to address underlying systemic causes (ADI).</p><ul><li><p><strong>Platform Cooperatives</strong>: Creating organizations in the global South based on structural equality, participatory design, and shared resources as an alternative to typical market exploitation (Mannan \& Pek, 2021$$).