Archaeology and Anthropology Notes

Archaeology & Anthropology: Connections to Past Human Cultures

Introduction

  • Archaeology and anthropology connect us to past human cultures.

Excavating a Site

  • Archaeologists find items or features, including human remains.
  • Paleoanthropologists and forensic anthropologists identify biological features of past individuals.
    • Focus: "Who used to live here?"
  • Artifacts: Items made or shaped by humans (tools, art) that provide insight into cultural heritage.
    • Focus: "How did they live?"

Examples of Artifacts

  • Stone tools
  • Weapons
  • Jewelry
  • Art/Drawings
  • Pottery
  • Coins
  • Furniture
  • Architecture

The Archaeological Process

  • Complex and lengthy process beyond physical removal of objects.
  • Requires years of training as a recorder, surveyor, and photographer to avoid damaging items.
  • Amateur archaeology is forbidden in many countries.

Fieldwork as Surgery

  • Excavation is like a "surgery": archaeologists study the area, plan access points, and work precisely.

Defined Steps of the Research Process

  • Historical/Archival Research
  • Proposal Writing
  • Mapping/Surveying the Area
  • Data Recovery
  • Lab Analysis
  • Preservation
Archival Research
  • First step in the archaeological process.
  • Reviewing written records (primary and secondary sources).
  • Analyzing site reports for previous investigations and finds to guide new research.
  • Gathering information through oral histories for diverse perspectives.
Proposal Writing
  • Similar to Social Sciences Inquiry Model: write a hypothesis based on research.
  • Highlight rationale, methods, analysis, and aims.
  • Ethics are key: requires approval (often through a university).
  • Proposal used to apply for grants (funding).
Mapping/Surveying the Area
  • Geophysical Surveys:
    • Non-invasive techniques to locate sites without digging.
    • Magnetometry to "see" into the ground.
    • Resistivity to map features.
    • Ground-penetrating radar.
  • Archaeological Surveys:
    • Predictive model to indicate the probability of a site based on factors like water proximity, ground steepness, and soil type.
    • Team walks in straight lines, looking for artifacts or soil color changes.
    • Photographs and maps created for records.
Data Recovery
  • Archaeologists rarely excavate entire sites due to the destructive nature, cost, and time.
  • Professional responsibility to analyze artifacts, report findings, and curate collections.
  • Excavation occurs when there is a threat of destruction or crucial information to be revealed; usually only small parts of a site.
  • Gridding the Site:
    • Exact location of all artifacts must be recorded.
    • Establish a datum point (fixed reference point).
    • Superimpose a rectangular grid; each square (unit) is measured and numbered for precise mapping of features and artifacts.
Lab Analysis and Preservation
  • Artifacts are washed, sorted, catalogued, and stored.
  • Analyzed individually or grouped to assess patterns (e.g., soil stains indicate age).
  • Carbon-dating and x-rays are analytical tools.
  • Preserving Collections:
    • Ethical and legal obligations to preserve data, including artifacts, soil samples, field notes, maps, photographs, drawings, and historical documents.
    • Strict guidelines for cleaning, labeling, cataloging, and storing objects.
    • Universities and museums sponsor projects and are responsible for preservation and storage.

Importance of Artifacts

  • Artifacts reveal where and when people lived, and why and how they lived.
  • Examine changes and causes in human cultures over time.
  • Seek patterns and explanations to understand the origins of agriculture, complex societies, and how people came to inhabit the Americas. For example:
Riddles of the Anasazi
  • Around A.D. 1250, the Anasazi migrated from open villages to inaccessible dwellings due to an unknown threat, then moved again a generation later.
Anasazi Civilization
  • Emerged as early as 1500 B.C.
  • Descendants: Hopi and Zuni peoples.
  • Chaco Canyon (western New Mexico) was the cultural center during the 10th and 11th centuries.
    • 30,000-square-mile landscape populated by as many as 30,000 people.
  • Magnificent villages like Pueblo Bonito with up to 800 rooms.
  • 400-mile road network.
  • Sophisticated astronomical observatories.
  • Anglo explorers named them the Cliff Dwellers due to well-preserved villages.
Questions about the Anasazi
  • What drove them to retreat to cliffs and fortified villages?
  • What caused their mysterious disappearance in the 13th Century?
Nazca Lines
  • Pre-Columbian Nazca culture in Peru created enormous "Nazca Lines".
  • Johan Reinhard suggests they had religious significance related to water worship.
Artifacts in Labs and Museums
  • Artifacts include tools, clothing, and decorations.
  • Figurine from Crete linked to the Minoan civilization and the legend of Atlantis.

Written Records of Historic Cultures

  • Latin on artifacts from the Roman Empire, from the Mediterranean to the British Isles.
  • Stele on the King's Highway (Egypt to Syria).

Cultural Insights

  • Archaeology reveals clues about a culture and its impact on the landscape and nearby cultures.
  • Viking colony at L'Anse aux Meadows (Canada) is the only known Norse settlement in the Americas outside of Greenland.

Decorative Features

  • Roman mosaic in Sicily shows armor worn by hunters and warriors.
  • Demonstrates Roman familiarity with lions and tigers, indicating extensive trade routes.

Terra Cotta Warriors

  • Life-size clay soldiers from Qin Shi Huang-di's funeral are assembled from shards.
  • Information is cataloged for future study.

Modern Technology and Mummies

  • Reveals hidden details about mummies like Tutankhamun and Ramses II.
  • Study of Ramses II in Paris (1974) diagnosed arthritis, tooth infections, and poor circulation; identified him as a redhead.

Ownership and Controversy

  • Taking pebbles from the Colosseum or a figurine from the Pantheon raises questions about ownership.
  • Does "finders, keepers" apply in archaeology?

Ethical Issues

  • Ownership of artifacts is complex.
  • Who owns artifacts found with metal detectors: the dead soldier, living relatives, government, or finder?
  • What rights do people have to artifacts, and what matters more in relation to their ownership?

Additional Resources

  • New York Times Article: "When is it OK for Archaeologists to dig up the dead?"