Notes on American Political Party Systems

AMERICAN PARTY SYSTEMS — MASTER STUDY GUIDE (FULL PRINT‑OUT)

Comprehensive, test‑ready, lecture‑based, expanded

I. What Are Party Systems? (Core Concept)

A party system is a long‑lasting era in which the same two major parties compete with stable coalitions, recurring issues, and predictable voting blocs.
Your professor emphasizes that these systems follow a cyclical pattern, and that the dates—especially after 1968—are debated.

“These dates are arguable… my colleagues argue about what comes next.”

Widely Accepted Party Systems

  1. First Party System (1789–1820)

  2. Second Party System (1828–1860)

  3. Third Party System (1865–1896)

  4. Fourth Party System (1896–1932)

  5. Fifth Party System (1932–1968)

Contested Systems

  • Sixth Party System (1968–2001)

  • Seventh Party System (2001–present)

Exam Tip:
You MUST know the first five. The last two are “arguable,” so mention that in essays.

II. First Party System (1789–1820)

Parties

  • Federalists (Hamilton)

  • Democratic‑Republicans (Jefferson, Madison)

Founders Distrusted Parties

The founding generation believed parties were corrupting:

“Parties were bad… evidence something was wrong with the political system.”

Washington’s Farewell Address warned against “the spirit of party.”

Key Feature: Only Party in Government (PIG)

There was:

  • Party in Government (PIG)

  • No Party in the Electorate (PIE)

  • No Party Organization (PO)

Your professor:

“We have PIG… but we don’t have PIE or PO.”

Politics was elite‑only.

Elite Congressional Factions

Members clustered around Hamilton vs. Jefferson.
This era included the famous 1796 brawl:

“One guy with metal fire tongs, another with a big wooden cane brawled on the floor of Congress.”

Democratic‑Republican Clubs

  • Modeled on French Jacobin clubs

  • Tavern‑based political discussion

  • Pushed for ending property qualifications

Property Qualifications → Universal White Manhood Suffrage

Democratic‑Republicans fought to abolish property requirements:

“If you fight against giving people the right to vote and then they get it, they are not gonna vote for you.”

Federalists opposed this → they died out.

Era of Good Feelings (1815–1824)

Federalists collapse → one‑party rule.
Jefferson:

“We are all Democrats, we are all Republicans.”

III. The Election of 1824 & the Transformation of Politics

Candidates:

  • Andrew Jackson

  • John Quincy Adams

  • Henry Clay

Jackson wins pluralities but not a majority → House chooses Adams → Adams appoints Clay Secretary of State.

Jackson calls it: "a corrupt bargain," claiming that the appointment was a result of backdoor deals rather than the will of the people.

“A corrupt bargain.”

He returns to Tennessee and begins building a new political machine. This machine would later evolve into the Democratic Party, focusing on appealing to the common man and opposing the elite establishment.

IV. Second Party System (1828–1860)

⭐ Why This Is the Birth of Mass Parties

  • The emergence of the Democratic Party marked a significant shift in American politics, as it aimed to mobilize a broader electorate and engage the public in political discourse.

  • The use of rallies, newspapers, and grassroots organizing techniques became essential tools for attracting voters and promoting party ideals. This period also saw the rise of the Whig Party, which helped to further establish opposition to the Democrats and provided alternative platforms for voters, ultimately shaping a more dynamic and contested political landscape.

This is the FIRST time the U.S. has:

  • Party in the Electorate (PIE)

  • Party Organization (PO)

  • National party structures

  • Voter mobilization

  • Mass participation

Your professor:

“This is where we get the origin of mass‑based political parties.” These parties emerged as a response to the need for greater representation among the electorate, allowing diverse groups to express their interests and influence policy. In turn, this shift led to the establishment of party organizations that actively worked to engage and mobilize voters, reinforcing the connection between citizens and their government.

Why Mass Parties Begin Here (Test‑Critical)

1. Before 1828, parties were elite-only

No mass membership, no voter mobilization, no national organization.

2. Jackson + Van Buren invent the modern party

They build:

  • Neighborhood‑level organizers

  • County committees

  • State conventions

  • National party structure

“Organizing voters from the neighborhood level… up to a national organization.”

3. Patronage / Spoils System

Jackson introduces the spoils system: (Define SPOIL SYSTEM: the practice of a political party giving government jobs and appointments to its supporters as a reward for their loyalty and to strengthen its base of support. This approach was instrumental in solidifying party loyalty but also led to concerns about corruption and inefficiency within the government. It enabled greater participation from ordinary citizens who were often mobilized through local party networks, but also raised ethical questions about meritocracy in government positions.

“Political loyalty flowed up… patronage and pork flowed down.” -

This creates incentives for:

  • Joining the party

  • Voting

  • Mobilizing neighbors

Expanded Section: The Patronage / Spoils System (Second Party System)

Definition (Test‑Ready)

The spoils system is the practice in which a political party rewards its loyal supporters with government jobs, contracts, and appointments after winning an election.
It is based on the principle:
“To the victor go the spoils.”

Your professor’s phrasing captures the flow of power:

“Political loyalty flowed up… patronage and pork flowed down.”

This means:

  • Ordinary people give loyalty, votes, and mobilization upward

  • The party gives jobs, favors, and resources downward

This system is the engine that made mass‑based political parties possible.

⭐ Why Jackson Introduced the Spoils System

Andrew Jackson believed:

  • Government had been dominated by entrenched elites

  • Ordinary citizens deserved a role in government

  • Rotation in office prevented corruption

  • Loyalty should be rewarded

He framed it as democratic:

  • “No one has a right to a government job forever.”

  • “The people’s will should be reflected in the bureaucracy.”

But it also served a political purpose:

  • Build a loyal national machine

  • Mobilize voters

  • Strengthen the Democratic Party

⭐ How the Spoils System Worked (Mechanics)

1. Jobs for Loyalty

If you:

  • Campaigned for the party

  • Organized voters

  • Printed ballots

  • Hosted meetings

  • Turned out crowds

  • Delivered votes in your precinct

You could receive:

  • A post office job

  • A customs house job

  • A clerkship

  • A local administrative position

  • A federal appointment

These jobs were lucrative, stable, and often required no special expertise.

2. Party Hierarchy Controlled Access

The system was structured:

Neighborhood captains → ward bosses → county committees → state leaders → national party

Each level:

  • Mobilized voters

  • Reported turnout

  • Distributed rewards

This created a vertical chain of loyalty.

3. Pork-Barrel Politics

“Pork” = government spending directed to a specific district.

Examples:

  • Roads

  • Bridges

  • Post offices

  • Canals

  • Local construction projects

These projects were used to:

  • Reward loyal districts

  • Punish disloyal ones

  • Strengthen the party’s local presence

4. Party Newspapers

Patronage funded:

  • Editors

  • Printers

  • Newspaper subsidies

These newspapers:

  • Promoted party ideology

  • Attacked opponents

  • Mobilized voters

⭐ Why the Spoils System Created Mass Parties

1. It incentivized ordinary people to participate

People now had a material reason to:

  • Join the party

  • Attend meetings

  • Knock on doors

  • Turn out voters

  • Spread party messages

Politics became a pathway to employment.

2. It created a permanent party organization

Before this, parties were temporary coalitions of elites.
After Jackson, parties became year‑round institutions with:

  • Offices

  • Staff

  • Newspapers

  • Local committees

  • National conventions

This is the birth of modern party organization.

3. It linked voters to the party emotionally and materially

People didn’t just vote for a candidate — they joined a team.

The party:

  • Helped you find work

  • Helped your community get resources

  • Helped immigrants navigate the system

  • Provided social support networks

This created deep, durable loyalty.

4. It made elections competitive and participatory

Turnout skyrocketed in the Second Party System:

  • Often 70–80% in presidential elections

  • Sometimes 90% in local elections

Why? Because people had something to gain.

5. It allowed parties to mobilize the new electorate

Universal white manhood suffrage meant millions of new voters.
The spoils system gave parties the tools to:

  • Register them

  • Educate them

  • Transport them to polls

  • Integrate them into the party

⭐ Consequences of the Spoils System

Positive Consequences

1. Democratization

Ordinary citizens gained access to:

  • Government jobs

  • Political influence

  • Party leadership roles

2. Mass political participation

People became politically active because participation had tangible rewards.

3. Strong party identity

People identified deeply with their party because it was:

  • Their employer

  • Their community

  • Their social network

Negative Consequences

1. Corruption

Jobs were awarded based on loyalty, not competence.

2. Inefficiency

Unqualified people often held important positions.

3. Machine politics

Local bosses (like Tammany Hall) gained enormous power.

4. Lack of meritocracy

Talented individuals could be excluded if they weren’t politically connected.

5. Instability

Every election could result in mass firings and hirings.

⭐ Why This Matters for the Birth of Mass Parties

The spoils system is the structural foundation of the Second Party System.

It explains:

  • Why parties became mass organizations

  • Why turnout exploded

  • Why Jacksonian democracy transformed politics

  • Why the Democratic Party became the first national machine

  • Why the Whigs had to copy the Democrats to survive

Without the spoils system, the U.S. would have remained a system of:

  • Elite factions

  • Limited participation

  • Weak party organization

Instead, it became a system of:

  • Mass mobilization

  • Strong party identity

  • National party structures

This is why your professor insists:

The Second Party System is the true birth of mass‑based political parties.

4. Universal white male suffrage

Millions of new voters enter the electorate → parties must mobilize them.

5. The Third Party System inherits mass parties — it doesn’t create them

The structure already exists by 1860.

V. Second Party System Details

Democratic Party (Jackson)

Coalition:

  • Small farmers

  • Immigrants (Irish, German, Catholics)

  • Urban workers

  • “Common man” voters

Opposition: The Whig Party

Coalition:

  • Business elites

  • Professionals

  • Southern planters

  • Anti‑Jackson conservatives

Slavery Breaks the System

As new states enter the Union, slavery becomes unavoidable:

“An irreconcilable issue entered political conversation… slavery broke both parties.”

Whigs collapse → Republican Party rises.

VI. Third Party System (1865–1896)

Post–Civil War Realignment

  • Republicans dominate the North and West

  • Democrats dominate the South

The Solid South

Democrats maintain power through:

  • Violence

  • Intimidation

  • Jim Crow laws

  • Lynching

“If you want to vote Republican, we might have to kill you.”

Republicans = party of:

  • Northern industry

  • Railroads

  • African Americans

VII. Fourth Party System (1896–1932)

Triggered by the 1896 election (McKinley vs. Bryan).

Key Features

  • Industrialization

  • Urbanization

  • Immigration

  • Corporate capitalism

  • Progressive reforms

Republicans dominate nationally.
Democrats remain strong in the South + immigrant cities.

VIII. Fifth Party System (1932–1968): The New Deal System

Triggered by the Great Depression.

FDR wins in a landslide:

“This was a good night for Democrats… most of the map is blue.”

New Deal Coalition

  • Urban immigrants

  • Labor unions

  • Small farmers

  • African Americans (Great Migration)

  • Intellectuals

  • The Solid South

This coalition dominates for decades.

Why It Ends

  • Civil Rights Movement

  • Southern white backlash

  • Vietnam War

  • Cultural issues (crime, feminism, religion)

IX. Sixth Party System (1968–2001)

Dates are debated, but your professor argues:

“1968 through 2001.”

Key Features

  • Southern realignment → whites shift Republican

  • African Americans become overwhelmingly Democratic

  • Rise of:

    • Evangelical politics

    • Law‑and‑order politics

    • Culture wars

    • Suburbanization

  • Decline of New Deal coalition

Republicans dominate presidential elections; Democrats dominate Congress until 1994.

X. Seventh Party System (2001–Present)

Your professor stresses uncertainty:

“Hard to tell if we’re on the cusp of transition.”

Possible Features

  • Post‑9/11 politics

  • Nationalized elections

  • Hyper‑polarization

  • Decline of local party machines

  • Identity‑based coalitions

  • Partisan media ecosystems

  • Social media mobilization

XI. Big Analytical Themes (High‑Probability Test Points)

1. Party systems change when coalitions break

  • Slavery

  • Industrialization

  • Immigration

  • Civil Rights

  • Economic crises

2. Organizational innovation matters

Jackson + Van Buren invented:

  • Mass parties

  • Spoils system

  • National party structure

3. Regional politics matter

North vs. South divides shape multiple systems.

4. Voter eligibility changes reshape parties

  • Ending property qualifications → mass politics

  • Civil Rights → Southern realignment

5. Parties survive by adapting

Federalists died because they resisted suffrage expansion.
Whigs died because they couldn’t handle slavery.
Democrats & Republicans survived by reinventing themselves