Study Notes on The Tumultuous Sixties, 1960-1968

The Tumultuous Sixties, 1960-1968

26 - Kennedy and the Cold War

26-1 John Fitzgerald Kennedy

  • Election of 1960
      - John F. Kennedy ran against Republican Richard Nixon.
      - Election was close - Kennedy won with a margin of 118,000 votes from nearly 69 million cast.
      - Kennedy performed well in Northeast and Midwest, but mixed success in the South.
      - His Roman Catholic faith was a concern in some areas, while beneficial in states with large Catholic populations.
      - Nixon's incumbency as vice president had disadvantages, such as poor approval ratings and a lackluster endorsement from Dwight Eisenhower.
      - Kennedy's image as youthful and charismatic appealed to voters, especially during televised debates where he appeared calm and confident compared to Nixon.

26-1a John Fitzgerald Kennedy

  • Background
      - Born to wealth and politics, with a strong family legacy.
      - Served in WWII, returning as a war hero.
      - Elected to U.S. House of Representatives in 1946 and later to the Senate in 1952.

  • Domestic Policies
      - Kennedy inherited New Deal policies and generally supported social welfare.
      - His Pulitzer Prize-winning book, Profiles in Courage, exaggerated his sole authorship, being heavily drafted by Theodore Sorensen.
      - While endorsing Cold War policies, he avoided contentious issues like civil rights.

  • Health Issues
      - Suffered from multiple ailments, including Addison's disease, which required daily cortisone injections and caused significant pain.

26-1b Election of 1960

  • Kennedy's election victory was celebrated as a new beginning for America, with hopes for a more dynamic political landscape.

26-1c Nation Building in the Third World

  • Kennedy initiated foreign aid and humanitarian programs like the Alliance for Progress and the Peace Corps aimed at promoting development and reducing anti-American sentiment.
      - The Peace Corps sent young Americans to assist in developing nations, embodying the spirit of the 1960s and moral leadership.

26-1d Soviet-American Tensions

  • Early diplomatic interactions showed little progress, leading to increased arms production by both nations and escalating tensions surrounding Berlin.
      - The construction of the Berlin Wall symbolized the Cold War's divisions, with both superpowers ratcheting up military readiness.

26-1e Bay of Pigs Invasion

  • The failed CIA-led invasion of Cuba led to embarrassment for the Kennedy administration and increased anti-American sentiment in Latin America.
      - Kennedy faced backlash after the failed attempt to overthrow Fidel Castro, prompting further covert operations against Cuba.

26-1f Cuban Missile Crisis

  • The crisis was precipitated by Soviet missile deployments in Cuba in 1962, leading to intense nuclear standoffs.
      - Kennedy decided on a naval quarantine and negotiations led to a Soviet withdrawal of missiles in exchange for U.S. non-invasion pledges.
      - The Cuban Missile Crisis significantly altered superpower relations, with both sides seeking improved communication afterward.

26-2 Marching for Freedom

26-2a Students and the Movement

  • The Greensboro lunch counter sit-in by four college students in 1960 marked the beginning of the nationwide civil rights sit-in movement.
      - By the end of 1961, over 70,000 people participated in sit-ins across the South, challenging segregation.
      - The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was founded to coordinate these efforts.

26-2b Freedom Rides and Voter Registration

  • Freedom Riders were groups who traveled through the South in 1961 to challenge segregation in interstate travel, facing violence along the way.
      - Violent incidents received national media attention, shocking many Americans and increasing support for civil rights.

26-2c Kennedy and Civil Rights

  • Initially hesitant, Kennedy became more supportive of the civil rights movement due to pressures and violence against activists.
      - He faced criticism for appointing segregationists and delaying tangible actions against segregation.

26-2d Birmingham and the Children's Crusade

  • Martin Luther King Jr. led a campaign in Birmingham in 1963, aware that violent responses would garner national attention.
      - Images of children facing police violence turned public opinion in favor of the movement, leading to negotiations.

26-2e "Segregation Forever!"

  • Alabama Governor George Wallace famously attempted to prevent desegregation, leading to federal intervention from JFK.

26-2f March on Washington

  • On August 28, 1963, a quarter-million people marched for jobs and freedom, where MLK delivered his iconic "I Have a Dream" speech.
      - The event demonstrated unity and strength in the civil rights movement, despite tensions among different factions.

26-2g Summary of Key Events

  • The Freedom movement experienced immense growth and influence during early 1960s, focusing on desegregation and voting rights.

26-3 Liberalism and the Great Society

26-3a Kennedy Assassination

  • JFK was assassinated on November 22, 1963, shocking the nation and leading to Lyndon B. Johnson's presidency.

26-3b Johnson and the Great Society

  • Johnson sought to continue Kennedy’s legacy while expanding the Great Society programs aimed at eliminating poverty and inequality.
      - He articulated a vision of an improved American life with a focus on civil rights, poverty alleviation, and education.

26-3c Civil Rights Act

  • The Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, and sex, marking a significant victory for the civil rights movement.

26-3d Election of 1964

  • Johnson's landslide victory was attributed to both his civil rights support and opposition to Barry Goldwater’s conservative views.

26-3e Improving American Life

  • Johnson expanded social programs during the Great Society initiative focusing on poverty, health care, and education.

26-4 Johnson and Vietnam

26-4a Kennedy's Legacy in Vietnam

  • Kennedy increased military support in Vietnam, setting the stage for Johnson's later military escalation.

26-4b Tonkin Gulf Incident and Resolution

  • The Gulf of Tonkin incident gave Johnson a congressional mandate to escalate U.S. military action in Vietnam.

26-4c Decision for Escalation

  • Johnson authorized a major troop increase in Vietnam, peaking around 536,100 in 1968.

26-4d Opposition to Americanization

  • As war escalated, many citizens and leaders cautioned against deepening involvement, fearing loss of credibility.

26-4e American Soldiers in Vietnam

  • The average soldier in Vietnam was younger and often from poorer backgrounds, disproportionately affected by the draft.

26-4f Divisions at Home

  • American public opinion split over the Vietnam War, with growing anti-war movements emerging from among youth and students.

26-5 A Nation Divided

26-5a Black Power

  • Movements advocating for Black Power began, emphasizing self-determination and empowerment among African Americans.

26-5b Mexican American Activism

  • Mexican Americans faced significant discrimination, with new movements emerging to address social justice within their communities.

26-5c Youth and Politics

  • By mid-1960s, youth movements emerged advocating for civil rights, political reform, and against the Vietnam War.

26-5d Free Speech Movement

  • The Free Speech Movement at UC Berkeley galvanized student activism and called for political rights on campus.

26-5e Youth Culture and the Counterculture

  • A countercultural movement rejected mainstream values, embracing alternative lifestyles and ideals, music, and sexual freedom.

26-6 1968

26-6a The Tet Offensive

  • The Tet Offensive demonstrated the North Vietnamese and Vietcong's ability to mount coordinated attacks, shaping public perception of the war.

26-6b Johnson's Exit

  • Facing criticism and military failures, Johnson announced his withdrawal from the presidential race and called for peace effort in Vietnam.

26-6c Assassinations

  • The assassinations of Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy intensified social unrest and fractured the nation further.

26-6d Chicago Democratic National Convention

  • The Convention saw protests and a violent police crackdown, highlighting divisions within the Democratic Party and the country.

26-6e Global Protest

  • Protests erupted globally, reflecting discontent with authority and imperialism during a turbulent year.

26-6f Nixon's Election

  • Richard Nixon's election epitomized the divisions in American society, promising to restore order amid political turmoil.

Summary

  • The 1960s were characterized by struggles for civil rights, growing dissent against the Vietnam War, and cultural revolutions.

  • The Immigration Act of 1965 ended discriminatory immigration policies, reshaping America's demographics significantly.