plaud psyc beginning ch 7

## Key Learnings

1. Cognition: Cognition encompasses thinking, intelligence, language, memory, and learning. It involves all mental activities occurring in the brain while processing information.

2. Mental Images: Mental images are mental representations with picture-like qualities that stand for objects and bits.

3. Concepts: Concepts are mental categories used to group objects, events, and characteristics, simplifying the world around us.

4. Formal Concepts: Formal concepts are defined by specific rules and features, with clearly defined boundaries. They allow for precise categorization and definition.

5. Natural Concepts: Natural concepts form as a result of real-world experience and have a certain amount of fuzziness. They require more information to define.

6. Prototypes: Prototypes are examples of concepts that closely match the defining characteristics of a concept. They are culturally dependent.

7. Problem Solving Strategies: Different strategies for solving problems, including trial and error and algorithms.

8. Algorithms: Algorithms are step-by-step procedures that are super accurate but not very efficient. They require exact measurements, ingredients, and temperatures to achieve the desired result.

9. Heuristics: Heuristics are educated guesses based on prior experience that help narrow down possible solutions for a problem. They are fast but not always accurate.

10. Problem Solving Barriers: These are issues that hinder effective problem-solving, including confirmation bias, mental set, and functional fixedness.

11. Functional Fixedness: Functional fixedness is the cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used. Overcoming functional fixedness involves thinking of things as having more than one function.

12. Creativity: Creativity is the process of solving problems by combining ideas or behaviors in new ways. It involves coming up with a lot of different solutions to a problem.

13. Convergent Thinking: Convergent thinking is a type of thinking where all lines of problem-solving lead to one single answer. It involves narrowing down multiple possibilities to find the best solution.

14. Divergent Thinking: Divergent thinking is a type of thinking that involves generating many different ideas or possibilities from a single starting point. It is associated with creativity.

15. Intelligence Discussion: The class is prompted to discuss their personal definitions of intelligence and what characteristics they associate with being intelligent or unintelligent.

## Explanations

### 1. Cognition

- **Key Points**

- Cognition is the mental activity in the brain during information processing.

- It includes organizing, understanding, and communicating information.

- Thinking is more than a stream of consciousness; it involves words and images.

- **Explanation**

Cognition is a broad term that includes various mental processes. It is essential for understanding how we think, learn, remember, and communicate. The test covers cognition-related topics from Chapters 5, 6, and 7.

### 2. Mental Images

- **Key Points**

- Mental images are picture-like representations in the mind.

- They are not just words but visual representations.

- Aphantasia is a condition where individuals cannot form mental images.

- **Explanation**

Mental images allow individuals to visualize objects and scenarios in their minds. They are crucial for tasks that require visualization, such as recalling the number of windows in a house. Aphantasia is a condition where individuals lack this ability.

- **Cossland's Fictional Island Study**

> Participants were shown a map of an imaginary island with various points like a beach, lake, and forest. They had to visualize moving from one point to another and press a button when they mentally reached the destination.

1. Participants studied the map and visualized moving between points.

2. The time taken to mentally travel between points was measured.

3. Results showed that the larger the mental image, the longer it took to view it.

### 3. Concepts

- **Key Points**

- Concepts group similar objects, events, and characteristics.

- They simplify understanding and interaction with the world.

- Concepts have different levels: superordinate, basic, and subordinate.

- **Explanation**

Concepts help in organizing thoughts and understanding the world by grouping similar items. They range from broad categories (superordinate) to specific ones (subordinate).

### 4. Formal Concepts

- **Key Points**

- Defined by specific rules and features.

- Have clearly defined boundaries.

- Allow for precise categorization.

- **Explanation**

Formal concepts are used in fields like math and science where definitions are precise. For example, a square is defined as a shape with four equal sides and four right angles.

- **Square and Triangle in Geometry**

> A square is a shape with four equal sides and four right angles. A triangle is a shape with three sides.

1. A square fits the definition of having four equal sides and four right angles.

2. A triangle fits the definition of having three sides.

- **Mammals in Biology**

> Mammals are defined as warm-blooded animals that feed their babies milk and give birth to live young.

1. Mammals have warm blood, feed their babies milk, and give birth to live young.

2. These characteristics fit the formal concept of mammals.

### 5. Natural Concepts

- **Key Points**

- Formed through real-world experience.

- Have a certain amount of fuzziness.

- Require more information to define.

- **Explanation**

Natural concepts are not as clearly defined as formal concepts. They often require additional information or experience to understand fully.

- **Whales and Dolphins**

> Whales and dolphins are mammals, but they might be mistaken for fish due to their aquatic nature.

1. Despite living in the ocean and having fins, whales and dolphins breathe air and have warm blood.

2. They fit the criteria for mammals, but this is not immediately obvious without further information.

- **Duck-billed Platypus**

> The duck-billed platypus is a unique mammal with characteristics of birds and reptiles.

1. It has fur like mammals but lays eggs and has a duck bill.

2. It is venomous and feeds its young by sweating milk.

### 6. Prototypes

- **Key Points**

- Examples that closely match defining characteristics.

- Culturally dependent.

- First thing that comes to mind when thinking of a concept.

- **Explanation**

Prototypes are the most typical examples of a concept and can vary based on cultural background. For example, a car is a prototype for a vehicle in many cultures.

- **Vehicles and Fruits**

> Cars and trucks are common prototypes for vehicles, while apples and oranges are common prototypes for fruits.

1. In East Texas, cars and trucks are the first vehicles that come to mind.

2. In urban areas, buses might be more common.

3. Apples and oranges are common fruits in the U.S., while tropical fruits might be more common in Hawaii.

- **Color and Tool Exercise**

> Participants were asked to think of a color and a tool, with 'red hammer' being a common response.

1. Red and blue are common colors that come to mind.

2. Hammer, screwdriver, and wrench are common tools.

### 7. Problem Solving Strategies

- **Key Points**

- Trial and error: Trying solutions until one works.

- Algorithms: Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution.

- **Explanation**

Trial and error is effective for simple problems with limited solutions. Algorithms provide a guaranteed solution but may not be efficient for complex problems.

- **Trial and Error**

> Trying different solutions until the correct one is found.

1. Effective for simple problems with limited solutions.

2. Not suitable for complex problems with many possible solutions.

- **Algorithms**

> Following a step-by-step procedure to solve a problem.

1. Always leads to the correct solution if steps are followed correctly.

2. Can be time-consuming and not always efficient.

### 8. Algorithms

- **Key Points**

- Algorithms are accurate but can take a long time to solve.

- Baking is an example of an algorithm because it requires following exact steps.

- **Explanation**

Algorithms are like following a recipe in baking, where each step must be followed precisely to achieve the correct outcome.

### 9. Heuristics

- **Key Points**

- Heuristics are shortcuts to problem-solving.

- They are based on prior experiences and knowledge.

- Representative heuristics involve stereotypes.

- Availability heuristics involve overestimating likelihood based on ease of recall.

- **Explanation**

Heuristics allow for quick problem-solving by using past experiences, but they may not always lead to accurate solutions. Representative heuristics rely on stereotypes, while availability heuristics depend on how easily something can be recalled.

- **Representative Heuristic Example**

> An example of a representative heuristic is assuming all Africans have dark skin, which is not true as there are Northern Africans who are tan and South Africans who are white.

1. This example shows how stereotypes can lead to incorrect assumptions.

2. It highlights the danger of using representative heuristics in problem-solving.

- **Availability Heuristic Example**

> People overestimate the likelihood of shark attacks because they are easy to recall, despite being very rare.

1. The ease of recalling shark attacks makes people think they are more common than they are.

2. This demonstrates how availability heuristics can skew perception of risk.

### 10. Problem Solving Barriers

- **Key Points**

- Confirmation bias involves searching for evidence that fits one's beliefs while ignoring contrary evidence.

- Mental set is the persistence in using past problem-solving patterns.

- Functional fixedness is thinking about objects only in terms of their typical functions.

- **Explanation**

Problem-solving barriers prevent individuals from finding effective solutions by limiting their perspective. Confirmation bias leads to selective evidence gathering, mental set restricts thinking to past methods, and functional fixedness limits the use of objects to their intended purposes.

- **Confirmation Bias Example**

> The letter and number problem demonstrates confirmation bias by showing how people tend to seek evidence that confirms their beliefs.

1. Participants are asked to prove a rule by flipping cards, but often choose cards that confirm rather than disprove the rule.

2. This illustrates how confirmation bias can lead to incorrect conclusions.

- **Mental Set Example**

> The nine-dot problem requires connecting dots with four lines, but many struggle due to a mental set that prevents thinking outside the box.

1. Participants often assume they must stay within the dots, illustrating how mental set limits problem-solving.

2. The solution requires breaking free from this constraint.

- **Functional Fixedness Example**

> The Dunker's candle problem involves attaching a candle to a wall using a box of matches and thumbtacks, but many fail to see the box as a potential shelf.

1. Functional fixedness prevents seeing the box as anything other than a container for matches.

2. Overcoming this bias allows for creative problem-solving.

### 11. Functional Fixedness

- **Key Points**

- Functional fixedness limits creativity by restricting the use of objects to their traditional functions.

- Overcoming functional fixedness allows for more creative problem-solving.

- **Explanation**

Functional fixedness is a mental block against using an object in a new way that is required to solve a problem. Overcoming this bias involves thinking outside the box and considering alternative uses for objects.

### 12. Creativity

- **Key Points**

- Creativity involves generating multiple solutions to a problem.

- It is characterized by the ability to think of many possible facts or ideas.

- **Explanation**

Creativity is not just about artistic ability but about the capacity to generate diverse solutions and ideas. It is tested through tasks that require novel thinking, such as the circle test.

- **Circle Test**

> A test where a child is given a sheet of paper with blank circles and a time limit to draw as many pictures using the circles as possible.

1. If a child draws only faces, it is not considered creative.

2. If a child uses circles to create various objects like clocks, pizzas, or bicycle wheels, it demonstrates creativity.

### 13. Convergent Thinking

- **Key Points**

- Convergent thinking focuses on finding a single, correct solution to a problem.

- It is often associated with intelligence.

- **Explanation**

Convergent thinking is about analyzing a problem and narrowing down the options to arrive at the best solution. It is a logical and systematic approach to problem-solving.

- **Pencil Example**

> The need for something to write with leads to the solution of using a pencil.

1. Identifying the problem: Need something to write with.

2. Solution: Use a pencil as the single answer.

### 14. Divergent Thinking

- **Key Points**

- Divergent thinking involves brainstorming and generating multiple ideas.

- It is a sign of creativity rather than intelligence.

- **Explanation**

Divergent thinking is about expanding the range of possible solutions by thinking in a non-linear and creative way. It encourages exploring various possibilities without immediate judgment.

- **BRIC Test**

> A test where children are asked to come up with as many uses as possible for a brick.

1. Some children may only think of a few uses, like building a house or using it as a weapon.

2. More creative children can think of hundreds of uses, such as building a stove or using it as a paperweight.

### 15. Intelligence Discussion

- **Key Points**

- Students are encouraged to think about what intelligence means to them.

- They are asked to consider both intelligent and unintelligent traits.

- **Explanation**

The discussion aims to engage students in critical thinking about the concept of intelligence, encouraging them to reflect on their own perceptions and biases