A-Level Political Ideas - Liberalism Notes

Most influential ideology globally, underpinning many modern states.
Ambiguous; meaning varies across countries (e.g., 'center-left' in the UK/USA vs. conservative in Australia).

Reformation: Emphasized individual communication with God, reducing reliance on intermediaries.
Enlightenment: Extended religious ideas to the secular world, emphasizing reason, free thinking, and rational scrutiny.
Key figure: John Locke, considered the 'father of liberalism'.
Mechanistic Theory: States should reflect human needs for freedom and self-fulfillment, rejecting 'divine right of kings'.

Central figure in classical liberalism.
Two Treatises of Government (1690): cornerstone of liberal thought.
Rejected divine right of kings.
Argued for a 'legitimate' state created by mankind to serve mankind's interests, arising from the consent of the governed.
State of Nature: Believed it was underpinned by 'natural rights', 'natural laws', and 'natural justice'.
State of law should improve upon the state of nature by resolving disputes more efficiently.
Advocated for limited government, dispersal of powers, and ongoing consent of the governed.

Egotistical Individualism: Human beings are driven by self-interest.
Self-realisation: Discovering one's true self, free from societal constraints.
Self-determination: Being in control of one's own fate.
Self-fulfillment: Utilizing natural rights and talents to the fullest.

Developed classical liberal ideas, advocating for the extension of Enlightenment principles to women.
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792): Argued for formal equality and individual freedom for women.
Criticized societal norms restricting women's access to education, property, and legal protection.

Liberals believe in human rationality and its role in guiding behavior.
Developmental Individualism: Human nature progresses through knowledge, understanding, and education.
Utilitarianism: advanced by Jeremy Bentham asserting that human beings are guided by the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain.
John Stuart Mill redefined it as utility grounded on the permanent interests of man as a progressive being.
Optimistic view of human nature, rejecting the doctrine of Original Sin.

Natural Society: Liberals believe society predates the state.
Individualistic Society: Legitimate society maximizes individual self-realization and self-determination.
Support for minority rights and protection against 'dull conformity'.

Tolerance is crucial for universal self-realization.
Harm Principle: Individuals should be free to do anything that does not harm the liberty of others.
*Tolerance of minorities is essential, balanced with the need to address illiberal views.

Developed ideas of negative freedom and the harm principle.
Argued for toleration of diverse opinions and actions unless they harm others.
Viewed liberty as essential for human development.
Concerned about the 'tyranny of the majority' in a democracy.
Sought to focus on what individuals could become, which he termed 'individuality' and which has since been termed 'developmental individualism'.

Private Property: Central to economic liberalism, seen as a natural right.
Capitalism: Liberalism supports private enterprise and ownership.
Adam Smith: Argued that the 'invisible hand' of market forces would enrich individuals and nations.
Liberals generally defend capitalism and inequality on the grounds that its benefits trickle down and outcomes reflect merit.

Rejection of Anarchism: Liberalism favors a state over anarchy to best serve self-realization, self-determination and self-fulfilment.
Rejection of Traditional States: Liberals dismiss pre-Enlightenment states characterized by divine right, absolutism, and arbitrary power.
Contractual State: Legitimacy derives from the consent of the governed.
Social Contract: Individuals contract into a state for advantages, retaining the right to abolish it if it becomes tyrannical.

Promotion of Natural Rights: States should improve on rights enjoyed in the state of nature.
Equal Opportunities: Ensuring equal chances for self-fulfillment.
Promotion of Tolerance: Fostering a tolerant society through laws and institutions.

Constitutional State: Power is limited by preconditions, procedures, and a constitution.
Fragmented State: Dispersing power to prevent concentration.
Representative State: Including bodies like parliaments for rational discussion.
Meritocratic State: Governed by those who have earned their authority.
*Liberals are also wary of parliamentary sovereignty as they fear it could lead to the legitimization of '