Final Exam Review Notes

Scientific Method

• 3 Main Steps:
  1. Observation
  2. Hypothesis
  3. Experiment
• Scientific Theory: Well-tested and widely accepted explanation.
• Scientific Law: A basic principle that always applies under the same conditions.

Base Units

• Meters (m): Length
• Liters (L): Volume
• Grams (g): Mass
• Seconds (s): Time
• Metric Conversions: Move decimal left when converting to larger units, right for smaller units.

Measuring Temperature

• Celsius:
  • Freezing point of water: $0^{\circ}C$
  • Boiling point of water: $100^{\circ}C$
• Kelvin:
  • Absolute zero: $0 K$
  • Freezing point of water: $273 K$
  • Boiling point of water: $373 K$
• Conversion: $K = ^{\circ}C + 273.15$

Density

• Density = Mass / Volume
• If density < 1 g/cm³, object floats in water; if > 1 g/cm³, it sinks.

Scientific Notation

• Expressing numbers as a number between 1 and 10 multiplied by a power of 10.
• Example: $3,200 = 3.2 \times 10^3$
• Example: $0.000032 = 3.2 \times 10^{-5}$

Energy

• Energy is required for melting and condensation.

Acids and Bases

• Acids: pH < 7
• Neutral: pH = 7
• Bases: pH > 7

Topographic Maps

• Show elevation and surface features.
• Latitude: Degrees North or South.
• Longitude: Degrees West or East.

Atoms

• Electron: Negatively charged particle outside the nucleus.
• Neutron: Neutral particle in the nucleus.
• Proton: Positively charged particle in the nucleus.
• Nucleus: Center of the atom.

States of Matter

• Solids: Fixed shape and volume, particles vibrate in place.
• Liquids: Fixed volume, takes shape of container, particles move freely.
• Gases: No fixed shape or volume, particles spread out, compressible.

Periodic Table

• Rows: Periods
• Columns: Groups

Atomic Structure

• Mass Number = Protons + Neutrons

Valence Electrons

• Valence electrons determine bonding behavior.

Group Names

• Group 1: Alkali Metals
• Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals
• Group 17: Halogens
• Group 18: Noble Gases

Importance of Valence

• Valence determines how elements bond.

Ionic Bonds

• Ionic bonds form between metals and nonmetals.

Naming Ionic Bonds

• Lithium Sulfide: $Li_2S$
• Aluminum Sulfate: $Al<em>2(SO</em>4)_3$
• Potassium Chloride: $KCl$
• Magnesium Phosphate: $Mg<em>3(PO</em>4)_2$

Chemical Formulas

• $CO_2$: 1 Carbon, 2 Oxygen
• $5NH_3$: 5 Nitrogen, 15 Hydrogen
• $5Mg<em>3(PO</em>4)_2$: 15 Magnesium, 10 Phosphate, 40 Oxygen

Chemical Equations

• $C + O<em>2 \rightarrow CO</em>2$
• $2H<em>2 + O</em>2 \rightarrow 2H_2O$
• Equations are balanced when the number of each type of atom is the same on both sides.

Avogadro's Number

• $6.022 \times 10^{23}$

Minerals

• Occur naturally, inorganic, solid, definite chemical composition, crystalline structure
• Most abundant elements in Earth's crust: Oxygen (47%), Silicon (28%)

Rock Identification

• Rock types are identified by their formation process (igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic).

Classifications of Rocks

• Igneous: Granite (intrusive, felsic), Basalt (extrusive, mafic), Pumice (extrusive, frothy)
• Sedimentary: Sandstone (cemented sand), Limestone (calcite, skeletal fragments), Shale (cemented clay)
• Metamorphic: Marble (metamorphosed limestone), Schist (shiny, foliated), Gneiss (metamorphosed granite)

Clast Size

• Gravel: >2mm
• Sand: 0.06-2mm
• Silt: 0.004-0.06mm
• Clay: <0.004mm

Resources

• Renewable: Replaced at a rate comparable to consumption (e.g., solar, wind).
• Nonrenewable: Exist in fixed quantities (e.g., fossil fuels).

Fossils

• Preserved remains or evidence of past life.
• Paleontology: Study of fossils.

Fossil Fuels

• Derived from remains of once-living things (e.g., coal, oil, natural gas).
• Non-renewable, organic, mostly carbon.

Volcanoes

• Shield, Composite, Cinder Cone

Volcanic Eruptions

• Occur mostly at plate boundaries.
• Warning signs: swelling, gas release, minor earthquakes.
• Violence depends on magma viscosity and dissolved gas content.

Earthquakes

• Caused by ground shaking.
• Can trigger tsunamis.

Earthquake Location

• Requires 3 seismographs.

Seismic Waves

• P-waves: travel through solids & liquids.
• S-waves: travel only through solids.
• Used to determine Earth's core composition.

Folds

• Caused by crustal deformation.
• Anticline: Upfold.
• Syncline: Downfold.

Faults

• Strike-slip: Horizontal movement.
• Normal: Hanging wall moves down.
• Reverse: Hanging wall moves up.

Relative Dating

• Uses principles to determine the order of events.
• Law of Superposition: Bottom layers are older.
• Principle of Original Horizontality: Sediments deposit horizontally.
• Principle of Inclusions: Inclusions are older than the rock containing them.
• Cross-Cutting Relationships: Features cutting across are younger.

Weathering

• Breakdown of rocks at Earth's surface.
• Erosion: Transport of materials by natural agents.

Types of Weathering

• Mechanical: Physical disintegration.
• Chemical: Decomposition of minerals.

Factors Affecting Weathering

• Surface area, rock composition, climate.

Erosion

• Glaciers: U-shaped valleys.
• Rivers: V-shaped valleys.
• Groundwater: Creates karst topography.

Cave formations

• Stalactites: Hang from ceiling.
• Stalagmites: Rise from floor.
• Columns: Stalactite and stalagmite meet.

Soil Properties

• Porosity: Percentage of pore spaces.
• Permeability: Ability to transmit water.

River Transport

• Sediment load: Material carried by the river.
• Suspended load: Fine particles.
• Bed load: Coarse particles.
• Dissolved load: Ions in solution.

Dating

• Relative Dating: Determining the order of events.
• Superposition: Bottom rocks are older.
• Original Horizontality: Sediments deposit horizontally.
• Inclusions: Included rock is older.

Soil

• Combination of minerals, organic matter, water, and air.
• Regolith: Layer of rock and mineral fragments.

Atmosphere Layers

• Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere, Exosphere
• Composition: Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%)

Atmosphere Heating

• Heated by land and seas.
• Greenhouse Effect: Absorption by gases.

Insolation Factors

• Angle of incidence, length of daylight, distance from the sun.

Air Masses

• Continental Polar (cP): Cold, dry.
• Maritime Polar (mP): Cold, damp.
• Maritime Tropical (mT): Warm, wet.
• Continental Tropical (cT): Hot, dry.

Wind

• Travels from high to low pressure.
• Named for direction it comes from.
• Coriolis Effect: Deflection due to Earth's rotation.

Pressure

• Atmospheric Pressure: Weight of atmosphere.
• Measured with barometer.

Weather vs Climate

• Weather: State of atmosphere at a given time.
• Climate: Average weather pattern.

Continental Drift

• Hypothesis that continents have moved over time.

Plate Tectonics

• Theory that Earth's lithosphere is broken into moving plates.
• Supported by locations of earthquakes, volcanoes, and magnetic patterns.

Plate Boundaries

• Divergent: Plates move apart.
• Convergent: Plates collide.
• Transform: Plates slide past each other.

Ocean Pressure

• Increases with depth.
• Increases by one atmosphere for every 10 meters.

Seawater Density

• Affected by salinity and temperature.

Waves

• Transmit energy through matter or space.
• Mechanical waves require a medium.

Wave Characteristics

• Crest: Highest point.
• Trough: Lowest point.
• Wavelength: Distance between crests.
• Amplitude: Maximum displacement.

Factors Affecting Waves

• Wind speed, fetch, duration.

Tides

• Neap: Sun and moon at right angles.
• Spring: Sun and moon aligned.

Water Cycle

• Evaporation, condensation, precipitation.

Fronts

• Boundaries between air masses.

Systems

• High Pressure: Clear weather, diverging winds.
• Low Pressure: Cloudy weather, converging winds.

Climate Zones

• Tropical, Dry, Moderate, Continental, Polar

Temperature Control

• Latitude, altitude, cloud cover, proximity to water.

Moon Features

• Maria: Dark basins of basalt.
• Highlands: Light areas with mountain ranges and craters.
• Craters: Depressions from impacts.

Sun Layers

• Photosphere: Visible surface.
• Chromosphere: Dim layer.
• Corona: Thin, hot outer atmosphere.
• Core: Where nuclear fusion occurs.

Sun's Energy

• Nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium.

Planets

• Inner (Terrestrial): Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
• Outer (Jovian): Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune

Space Objects

• Meteoroid: Rock or icy fragment in space.
• Meteor: Light from meteoroid in atmosphere.
• Meteorite: Meteoroid that strikes Earth.

Light

• Electromagnetic radiation.
• Speed of light: 300,000 km/s.

Spectroscopy

• Study of light properties based on wavelength.
• Electromagnetic spectrum: Range of radiation.

Characteristics of star distance, magnitude, composition, & more

Types of Glaxies spiral, elliptical, & irregular

Difference btw Planets and stars

• Planets reflects lights from stars while stars emit light.

Moonphases

H-R Diagram
According to the chart, what factors are used to classify stars? What type of star is our sun? What type of star will it be after that?

Neutron Star

MSUN more than