Middle Ages
Germanic and Scandinavian Tribes
Many different Germanic tribes lived in central and northern Europe.
These tribes were concentrated in specific areas and were known for their frequent wars with each other, leading to their reputation as skilled warriors.
Due to the scarcity of written sources, there is limited information available about these tribes.
Notably, they believed in the practice of cremation:
Cremation was thought to free the spirit from the body.
It was also believed to prevent the spirit from harming the living.
Vikings
Vikings are better documented compared to other Germanic tribes.
Among the noble classes, particularly chieftains, there were unique burial customs:
Ship burial was a common practice where a deceased chieftain was placed on a ship alongside grave goods.
The entire ship would then be covered with earth as a form of burial.
Sacrifices of slaves or favored animals sometimes accompanied the burial.
In some cases, the deceased might also be cremated along with their ship and grave goods.
Fall of Rome
The fall of the Western Roman Empire occurred around 476 CE.
Following this event, there was no longer any centralized authority, leading much of Europe to descend into feudalism.
Northern tribes frequently invaded southern territories, pillaging and looting, which resulted in a significant loss of knowledge during this period.
Funeral Customs in the Early Middle Ages
Over time, the practice of burying the deceased in white linen garments shifted, and people began to be buried in clothing that reflected their life status.
Funerals for important individuals involved the use of a catafalque:
A catafalque is a decorated wooden frame that serves as a base for the coffin during the funeral service.
The “soul shot” refers to the fee paid to the church for conducting the funeral service.
Funeral Customs in the Early Middle Ages (Continued)
The duration of funerals could range from three days to a week, varying by the cultural context.
During the wake, wax candles were burned, with numbers sometimes exceeding 400.
The deceased was typically sealed in a coffin and a Requiem Mass was held:
Alms were distributed to the poor during this time.
After the mass, attendees would break their fast with a communal meal.
Intramural vs. Extramural Burial (Inside the Walls vs. Outside the Walls)
The Romans initially forbade intramural burial due to sanitation concerns; however, this began changing under Constantine, who was buried in the vestibule of the Church of the Holy Apostles.
With the end of persecution, Christians expressed the desire to be buried near their churches.
In 534 CE, Justinian the Lawgiver reinstated restrictions against urban burials.
In the 5th and 6th centuries, intramural burials became common again, albeit Charlemagne later outlawed the practice, despite being buried in Aachen Cathedral himself.
Intramural vs. Extramural Burial (Continued)
Churchyards, referred to as “God’s acre,” were seen as consecrated ground.
Those who died by suicide or were excommunicated were buried outside these churchyards in unconsecrated ground.
Priests, along with wealthy church patrons, could pay for their tombs to be located inside the church, particularly sought after spots being directly under the altar.
However, this practice led to unbearable odors in churches that incense could not mask.
In 1581, Cardinal Bourbon lamented that “not even the rich should be buried in churches.”
Medieval Wakes
Wakes were typically held at home and resembled a gathering more akin to a party, where attendees would drink and sing bawdy songs.
“Rousing the ghost” represented a form of practical joke intended to amuse superstitious mourners, convincing them that the deceased had returned to life.
Funerals of State
Funerals for state figures could last up to a week.
Wax death masks were often created shortly after death to represent the deceased at the funeral in place of their actual body.
An example includes Henry V, who was boiled down to his skeleton post-mortem and sent home, where an effigy was displayed during his funeral.
The Plagues
Frequently referred to as the Black Death, these plagues recurred in England, claiming thousands of lives each time.
The disease is caused by the bacteria and is spread through fleas that bite infected rats.
The bubonic plague typically produces symptoms such as buboes and fever ranging from 100 to 106 degrees Fahrenheit; if left untreated, the mortality rate is approximately 80% within eight days.
The Plagues (Continued)
Estimates suggest that the plague killed between 25% to 60% of Europe's population.
Many regions resorted to mass burials in designated cemeteries (e.g., Aldgate plague pit).
Despite the high fatalities, cremation was never considered as an option for dealing with the deceased.
Flagellants
Flagellants were individuals who engaged in self-flagellation as an act of repentance.
During the Black Death, groups of flagellants would publicly whip themselves, beseeching God to lift the plague.
Those who did not participate in the flagellation often faced violence, and Jewish communities were frequently targeted as scapegoats during these events.
Coffined Burial
Coffined burial was reserved primarily for the wealthy and significant individuals during earlier periods; eventually, beginning in the 1600s, coffins became increasingly prevalent among the general population.
By the late 1600s, the majority of burials involved the use of coffins.
Social Developments
As the middle class became more prominent, funerals began to evolve into more ostentatious events designed to display the wealth and social status of individuals.
For the working class, guilds began to provide necessary rituals such as prayers, masses, and palls associated with funerals.
Workers contributed to guilds through “quarterage,” and the guilds would cover the “soul shot” paid to the church.
The rise of the middle class also gave way to new professions, including funeral criers and bell ringers.
Burial in Woolen Act of 1666
Traditionally in England, shrouds and coffin linings were made from linen fabrics.
Cerecloth was a special material, linen treated with wax or alum, rendered water-resistant for use in burial.
Linen was primarily imported and vital to the paper industry, whereas wool was produced locally.
The “Burial in Woolen Act” mandated individuals be buried in woolen shrouds, penalizing those who did not comply with a fine of £5.
This law faced significant unpopularity and was not repealed until 1814.
Mourning Colors and Garments
In the Middle Ages, black emerged as the symbol of mourning, with purple reserved for royalty and ecclesiastical figures.
Mourning garments, known as “weeds” or “dooles,” were distributed among mourners and typically consisted of long black cloaks designed to fit a variety of people.
Upper-class widows were expected to wear a barbe and white cuffs, often retiring to a convent or dower house for the rest of their lives following a spouse’s death.
Local Customs
Various customs observed at burials include:
Sprinkling a handful of dirt on the corpse (Protestant tradition).
Placing a bag of earth in the coffin (Jewish custom).
Distributing a sprig of rosemary to attendees, a symbol of remembrance, which would then be cast into the grave.
The role of the sin-eater, a man who consumed a loaf of bread and drank a bowl of beer over the corpse, taking on the deceased’s sins for a fee of six-pence to facilitate the deceased’s rest.
Memento Mori – Remember That Thou Wilt Die!
In the Middle Ages, the concept of death was a constant presence for people.
Artistic representations like the “Danse Macabre” illustrated skeletons dancing with the living, serving as a reminder of the inevitability of death.
Independent Heart Burial
This practice involves preserving parts of the body, either for religious purposes as holy relics or due to the impossibility of transporting the whole body.
Commonly preserved items include hearts, fingers, bone fragments, and blood, with some hearts of nobles being removed, preserved, and interred in preferred churches.
Independent Bone Burial
For significant individuals who died far away from their homeland, it became a practice to dismember and boil the body, leaving only bones that could be transported more easily for Christian burial.
Pope Boniface III condemned this practice, labeling it “an abuse of abominable savagery, practiced by some of the faithful in a horrible and inconsiderate manner.”
Embalming in the Middle Ages
Generally, embalming was not practiced except for royalty or the wealthy; however, there are notable exceptions.
An example is Henry I, whose body had its brain, tongue, heart, eyes, and viscera removed, thereafter wrapped in bull's hide for transport.
In time, as surgeons and anatomists gained influence, embalming practices focused on preservation for study rather than for the purpose of funeralization.
Galen of Pergamon (CE 130-200)
Galen is recognized as one of the most distinguished medical researchers of antiquity.
His works on anatomy and medicine were translated into Latin in the 11th century, establishing a standard for medical practitioners.
Notably, Galen's dissections were performed on animals rather than humans, leading to some inaccuracies in his findings.
Mondino de Luzzi (Mundinus) (CE 1270-1326)
Recognized as the first serious anatomist of the Middle Ages, Mondino served as a professor at the University of Bologna.
He publicly performed dissections of cadavers for both medical students and spectators.
Mondino authored a significant dissection manual titled “Anathomia Corporis Humana,” which remained in use at medical schools until the 16th century.
Pietro d’Argellata (d. 1423)
Pietro d’Argellata is known for writing “Chirurgia,” which was published posthumously in 1480.
He provided detailed accounts of the embalming processes used on Pope Alexander V.
Observations by d’Argellata included noting that cold temperatures could retard decomposition.
Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)
Andreas Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern anatomy.
He published “De Humani Corporis Fabrica,” a comprehensive seven-volume work on human anatomy in 1453.
Vesalius conducted dissections using executed prisoners, allowing him to challenge and disprove several assertions made by Galen, who had never performed dissections on humans.
ANDREAE VESALII BRVXELLENSIS, SCHOLAE
Inscription from a historical text referring to Vesalius's work
“De Humani corporis fabrica” details the structure and components of the human body.
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
Martin Luther was a German priest who initiated the Protestant Reformation.
He strongly opposed the Catholic Church’s practice of indulgences, which he believed were exploitative.
Luther eventually broke away from the Catholic Church and established his own church, the Lutheran Church.
His actions had profound religious implications, but he is also noted for his anti-Semitic views; his writings were later utilized by the Nazis during WWII to justify their persecution of Jewish people.
Influence of the Reformation
The Protestant movement rejected certain doctrines such as the Doctrine of Purgatory, the sale of indulgences, and monastic orders.
Worship services became more straightforward and solemn, with many ceremonial aspects of the Catholic Church (vestments, incense, candles, etc.) being discarded.
Notably, in 1534, King Henry VIII in England formed the official Church of England, separating it from the Roman Catholic Church.