Outbreak of World War I and Its Aftermath

The Race for Colonies and the Rise of Global Tensions

The period around 1914 marks a pivotal point in world history, with events from 1789 leading up to World War I.
World War I (WWI) was the first industrial war, utilizing global economic resources and affecting civilian populations significantly.
The war resulted in the collapse of major empires: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottomans.
The Russian Revolution was a major outcome, being the first of its kind in world history.
The League of Nations was formed to promote world peace.

The Scramble for Colonies

Capitalist industry aimed to increase production, using surplus wealth for factories, railways, and steamships.
Advances in communication and transportation facilitated European expansion in Africa and other regions in the late 19th century.
Europe dominated the 19th century, colonizing and exploiting Asia and Africa.
England was a leading capitalist power with high demand for markets and raw materials, driving imperial expansion.

Rise of Monopoly Capitalism

After 1870, industry and finance merged to seek profits, marking a key characteristic of imperialism.
Free trade ideas declined, with the rise of trusts in the USA and cartels in Germany.
Trusts controlled the supply and price of commodities to their advantage.

Imperialism and Its Characteristics

Lenin defined imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism.
Colonies served as markets for surplus goods.
Imperialism led to militarization and total war.

Rivalry of Great Powers in Europe

By 1880, most of Asia was colonized, leaving Africa as the primary target.
The occupation and colonization of Africa occurred between 1881 and 1914.
England, France, Belgium, Italy, and Germany competed for colonies after 1870.

Clashes Amongst Great Powers

England faced competition from Germany and the United States, which produced cheaper goods.
National rivalry led to frequent clashes in Asia, Africa, and Europe.

Asia: The Rise of Japan

During the Meiji era (1867-1912), Japan imitated Western nations and modernized.
Japan adopted Western education and machinery and developed a modern army and navy.
In 1894, Japan defeated China in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95), surprising the world.
Japan annexed the Liaotung peninsula with Port Arthur, demonstrating its strength in East Asia, despite warnings from Russia, Germany, and France.
Japan relinquished its claim over Port Arthur due to European pressure, allowing Russia to occupy Manchuria.
Japan allied with England in 1902 and demanded Russia withdraw from Manchuria.
In the Russo-Japanese War of 1904, Japan defeated Russia and reclaimed Port Arthur, joining the ranks of major powers.

Strong-arm Diplomacy of Japan

After 1905, Japan controlled Korean policy, leading to the annexation of Korea in 1910.
Japan sought to take over German rights in Shantung and gain control over Manchuria following the fall of the Manchu dynasty in China in 1912.
This aggressive diplomacy caused hostility from China and European powers.

Colonisation and its Fallout

By 1900, almost all of Africa was colonized by European powers.
Britain, France, and Belgium divided most of Africa, with smaller areas for Germany and Italy.
Britain, France, Russia, and Germany established spheres of influence in China.
Japan took over Korea and Taiwan, France conquered Indo-China, and the US took the Philippines.
Early colonization attempts in Africa resulted in bloody battles, such as French wars in Algeria and Senegal, British losses to the Zulus and Sudanese army, and the Italian defeat by Ethiopia at Adowa in 1896.

Causes, Course, and Results of World War I

European Alliances and Counter-Alliances

By 1900, European powers were divided into two armed camps:
- Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy (Triple Alliance, 1882).
- France and Russia (alliance formed in 1894).
Britain, isolated, allied with Japan in 1902 due to Russia's hostility.
The Anglo-Japanese Alliance led France to seek an alliance with Britain, resulting in the Entente Cordiale (1904).
Britain and Russia reached an agreement over Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet, forming the Triple Entente.
The Triple Entente consisted of Britain, France, and Russia.

Violent Forms of Nationalism

Nationalism fostered an attitude of supporting one's country unconditionally, leading to hatred for other nations.
Examples include England's jingoism, France's chauvinism, and Germany's Kultur.

Aggressive Attitude of German Emperor

Emperor Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany wanted Germany to lead the world and expanded the German navy.
This naval expansion, viewed as a threat by Britain, led to a naval race and increased tensions.

Hostility of France towards Germany

France and Germany were rivals, with France resenting the loss of Alsace and Lorraine in 1871.
German interference in Morocco increased bitterness; Kaiser Wilhelm II challenged French control, demanding an international conference.

Imperial Power Politics in the Balkans

The Young Turk Revolution of 1908 allowed Austria and Russia to resume activities in the Balkans.
Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, opposed by Serbia, with Germany's support.
Germany promised to support Austria if it invaded Serbia and Russia intervened.
The Balkan Wars: Balkan League (Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Montenegro) formed in March 1912.
- First Balkan War (1912-13): The League attacked and defeated Turkish forces; Albania was created, and Macedonia was divided.
- Second Balkan War: Began because Bulgaria felt unsatisfied by the division of Macedonia and attacked Serbia and Greece but was easily defeated. Ended with the Treaty of Bucharest in August 1913.

Immediate Cause of World War I

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, by Princip, a Bosnian Serb, in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914.
Austria sought to eliminate Serbia, with Germany's backing; Germany declared war on Russia on August 1.
German violation of Belgian neutrality led Britain to enter the war.

Course of the War

Two Warring Camps:

Central Powers: Germany, Austria–Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria.
Allies: Russia, France, Britain, Italy, the United States, Belgium, Serbia, Romania and Greece.

Tsar’s Abortive Attempts for Peace

Tsar Nicholas II of Russia suggested to the Powers that they meet together to bring about an era of universal peace. In response, two Peace Conferences were held at The Hague in Holland in 1899 and 1907 but in vain.

War in Western/French Front

Germany invaded Belgium.
The burden of fighting fell on the French army.
Paris seemed almost doomed.

Battles of Tannenberg and Marne

Russian forces invaded East Prussia; Germany defeated them decisively at the Battle of Tannenberg.
At the Battle of the Marne (early September 1914), the French pushed back the Germans, saving Paris and resulting in trench warfare.

Battle of Verdun

Between February and July 1916, the Germans attacked Verdun.
Two million men took part and half of them were killed.

War in Eastern/Russian Front

Russian troops repeatedly defeated the Austrians, but were defeated by the Germans.
Russia had the worst trained and equipped army.
In 1917, the Tsarist regime in Russia was overthrown.
Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 3, 1918) with Germany.

Minor Theatres of War

In the Middle East, Turkey fought with the central powers but was ultimately defeated.
In the Far East, Japan captured Kiauchau, threatening China.
In the Balkans, the Austro-German army crushed Serbia and Rumania.

Fate of Colonies of Germany in Africa

The German colonies in western and eastern Africa were also attacked by the Allies and surrendered.

Italy falls to Austrian onslaught

The Central Powers successfully occupied Belgium, part of France, Poland, Serbia and Romania.

Central Powers’ Victories

In Germany and Austria women and children suffered from hunger and privation.

Naval Battles and America’s Entry into the War

The British won the naval battle (Battle of Jutland) in the North Sea in 1916.
Germany started their submarine warfare.
President Wilson declared war against Germany in April 1917 after the sinking of Lusitania.

The Armistice and Treaty of Versailles

Germany surrendered in November 1918.
The armistice took effect from November 11, 1918.
The Peace Conference opened in Paris in January 1919.
Woodrow Wilson (USA), Prime Minister Lloyd George (England) and Prime Minister Clemenceau (France) played a very important part.

Provisions of the Treaty

Germany was to pay war reparations.
German army reduced to 100,000 men.
Union of Austria and Germany forbidden.
German colonies became mandated territories.
Germany forced to revoke the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and Bucharest.
Alsace–Lorraine returned to France.
Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania independent.
Northern Schleswig given to Denmark.
Poland recreated.
Rhineland to be occupied by the Allies.

Separate treaties with Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey.

Fallout of the First World War

The First World War left a deep impact on European society and polity.
8 million deaths and many more wounded, and many crippled for life.
Imbalance between the sexes—a shortage of men.
Soldiers came to be placed above civilians.
The rise and consolidation of the Soviet Union, the U.S.S.R
America entered the War as a debtor country but it emerged as the money-lender to the world.
Another outstanding event of this period was the awakening of the colonies and their inspired attempts to gain freedom.
Mustafa Kemal Pasha played a remarkable role for Turkey’s rebirth as a nation.

Impact on India

The British recruited a vast contingent of Indians to serve in Europe, Africa and West Asia.
After the War, the soldiers came back with new ideas which had an impact on the Indian society.
India contributed £ 230 million in cash and over £ 125 million in loans towards war expenses. India also sent war materials to the value £ 250 million.
The War conditions led to the rise of Home Rule Movement in India. The Congress was reunited during the war.

Russian Revolution and its Impact

There were really two revolutions in the year 1917, one in March and the other in November.
On the abdication of the Tsar the bourgeois government which followed, wanted to continue the war. But the people were against it.
So there was a second great uprising under the guidance their leader Lenin, who seized power and established a communist government in Russia.

Causes of the Revolution

Social Causes

The Russian peasants were serfs tied to lands owned by wealthy Russians.
In 1861 Tsar Alexander II abolished serfdom and emancipated the serfs.

Role of Revolutionaries

The spread of revolutionary ideas among the intelligentsia and their repression by the Tsar’s government made the socialistically inclined students to carry their propaganda to the peasantry.

Autocracy of the Tsar

Tsar Nicholas II of Romanov dynasty had little experience of government.
This provoked a war with Japan in 1904. The resulting Russian defeat led to strikes and riots.

Opposition to Tsar and Dissolution of Duma

The outbreak of the First World War had temporarily strengthened the monarchy, as Russia allied to France and Britain.
The members of the St. Petersburg Soviet were arrested.

Popular Uprisings

The bread shortages among women textile workers, many with husbands in the army, forced them to go on strike anyway and march through the factory areas of Petrograd, the capital of the Russian Empire.

Revolution of 1917 Abdication of Tsar

The revolutionary Tamil poet Bharathiyar cheered on the event.
On 15 March, Nicholas II abdicated.

Provisional Government

There were two parallel bodies to take on government functions. One was of the bourgeois politicians of the old state Duma, comprising propertied classes.

Failure of Provisional Government

Lenin was in Switzerland when the revolution broke out. Lenin wanted continued revolution. His slogan of ‘All power to the Soviets’ soon won over the workers’ leaders.

Takeover by the Bolshevik Party under Lenin’s leadership

In October Lenin persuaded the Bolshevik Central Committee to decide on immediate revolution.
On 7 November the key government buildings, including the Winter Palace, the Prime Minister’s headquarters, were seized by armed factory workers and revolutionary troops.
On 8 November 1917 a new Communist government was in office in Russia.

Outcome of the Revolution

The Russian Communist Party eliminated illiteracy and poverty in Russia within a record time.
Russian industry and agriculture developed remarkably.
Women were given equal rights, including rights to vote.
Industries and banks were nationalised.
Land was announced as social property. Land was distributed to poor peasants.
In March 1918 the Treaty of Brest– Litovsk was signed.

Global Influence of the Russian Revolution

The revolution fired people’s imagination across the world. In many countries, communist parties were formed.
The Russian communist government encouraged the colonies to fight for their freedom.

League of Nations

Structure and Composition

The League which was formed in 1920 consisted of five bodies: the Assembly, the Council, the Secretariat, the Permanent Court of Justice, and the International Labour Organisation.
Each member had one vote and since all decisions had to be unanimous, even the small nations possessed the right of veto.
The League of Nations was located at Geneva. Its first Secretary General was Sir Eric Drummond from Britain.

Objectives of the League

The two-fold objective of the League of Nations was to avoid war and maintain peace in the world and to promote international cooperation in economic and social affairs.
If wars should break out despite arbitration, the members should apply sanctions to the aggressor first economic and then military.
The difficulty in achieving the objectives was increased from the beginning by the absence of three Great Powers namely USA (did not become a member), Germany (a defeated nation) and Russia.

Activities of the League

The League was called in to settle a number of disputes between 1920 and 1925.The League was successful in three issues.

Violations

One of the major problems confronting the European powers was how to achieve disarmament.
In 1925 the Council of the League set up a commission to hold a Disarmament Conference to sort out the problem.
But the proposed conference materialised only in February 1932. In this Conference, Germany’s demand of equality of arms with France was rejected.
In October Hitler withdrew Germany from the Conference and the League.
Japan attacked Manchuria in September 1931 and the League condemned Japan.
The League of Nations was finally dissolved in 1946.

Causes of Failure

The League appeared to be an organisation of those who were victorious in the First World War.
Since it lacked the military power of its own, it could not enforce its decisions.
The principle of “collective security’ could not be applied in actual practice.
When Italy, Japan and Germany, headed by dictators, refused to be bound by the orders of the League, Britain and France were the only major powers to act decisively.