SKELETAL SYSTEM
Detailed revision notes
WHAT IS THE SKELETAL SYSTEM?
The skeletal system is the body's framework.
It is made up of:
Bones.
Joints.
Cartilage.
Ligaments.
The skeleton provides the structure that allows the body to:
Stand upright.
Maintain its shape.
Protect organs.
Move.
Support body weight.
Produce blood cells.
Store minerals.
THE TWO MAIN DIVISIONS OF THE SKELETON
The skeleton can be divided into:
Axial skeleton.
Appendicular skeleton.
AXIAL SKELETON
The axial skeleton forms the central part of the body.
It includes:
Skull.
Vertebral column.
Ribs.
Sternum.
Main functions:
Support the body.
Protect important organs.
Provide attachment points for muscles.
Help maintain posture.
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the limbs and the structures that attach the limbs to the axial skeleton.
It includes:
Shoulder girdle.
Arms.
Hands.
Pelvic girdle.
Legs.
Feet.
Main functions:
Movement.
Locomotion.
Providing attachment points for muscles.
Transferring forces between the limbs and trunk.
MAJOR BONES OF THE BODY
You need to be able to identify the major bones and understand their functions.
SKULL / CRANIUM
Location:
Head.
Function:
Protects the brain.
Provides attachment points for muscles.
Helps form the structure of the face and head.
MANDIBLE
Location:
Lower jaw.
Functions:
Allows chewing.
Allows movement of the lower jaw.
Provides attachment for muscles involved in chewing.
CLAVICLE
Also called the collar bone.
Location:
Between the sternum and scapula.
Functions:
Connects the upper limb to the trunk.
Helps stabilise the shoulder.
Allows the shoulder to move freely.
SCAPULA
Also called the shoulder blade.
Location:
Upper back.
Functions:
Provides attachment for muscles.
Forms part of the shoulder joint.
Helps allow movement of the arm.
STERNUM
Also called the breastbone.
Location:
Centre of the chest.
Functions:
Protects organs within the chest.
Provides attachment for the ribs.
Provides attachment for some muscles.
RIBS
Location:
Chest.
Functions:
Protect the heart and lungs.
Help form the thoracic cavity.
Provide attachment for respiratory muscles.
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Also called:
Spine.
Backbone.
Functions:
Supports the head and trunk.
Protects the spinal cord.
Allows movement of the trunk.
Provides attachment for muscles.
Helps maintain posture.
HUMERUS
Location:
Upper arm.
It runs between:
Shoulder.
Elbow.
Functions:
Acts as a lever during arm movements.
Provides attachment for muscles.
RADIUS
Location:
Forearm.
It is on the:
Thumb side of the forearm.
Functions:
Helps move the forearm and wrist.
Provides attachment for muscles.
ULNA
Location:
Forearm.
It is on the:
Little-finger side of the forearm.
Functions:
Forms part of the elbow joint.
Provides attachment for muscles.
Helps move and stabilise the forearm.
CARPALS
Location:
Wrist.
These are a group of small bones.
Functions:
Allow movement of the wrist.
Help absorb forces.
Provide stability.
METACARPALS
Location:
Hand.
They are between:
Carpals.
Phalanges.
Functions:
Form the main structure of the hand.
Help with gripping and movement.
PHALANGES
Location:
Fingers and toes.
Functions:
Allow fine movement.
Help with gripping.
Help with balance and propulsion.
PELVIS
Location:
Lower trunk.
Functions:
Supports the trunk.
Transfers forces between the upper and lower body.
Protects organs in the pelvic region.
Provides attachment for many muscles.
Helps form the hip joint.
FEMUR
Location:
Thigh.
It is the:
Longest bone in the human body.
Functions:
Supports body weight.
Acts as a lever.
Provides attachment for muscles.
Forms the hip and knee joints.
PATELLA
Also called:
Kneecap.
It is a:
Sesamoid bone.
Functions:
Protects the knee joint.
Reduces friction.
Improves the mechanical advantage of the quadriceps.
Helps the quadriceps produce knee extension.
TIBIA
Also called:
Shin bone.
Location:
Lower leg.
Functions:
Main weight-bearing bone of the lower leg.
Helps form the knee and ankle joints.
Transfers forces to and from the foot.
FIBULA
Location:
Lower leg.
Functions:
Provides muscle attachment.
Helps stabilise the ankle.
Helps form the ankle joint.
TARSALS
Location:
Ankle and rear foot.
Functions:
Help support body weight.
Help with movement of the ankle and foot.
METATARSALS
Location:
Foot.
They are between:
Tarsals.
Phalanges.
Functions:
Help support body weight.
Help with balance.
Help transfer force during walking and running.
THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
The vertebral column is extremely important in sport.
It:
Supports the body.
Protects the spinal cord.
Allows movement.
Maintains posture.
Absorbs shock.
Provides attachment for muscles.
THE FIVE MAIN REGIONS
The vertebral column consists of:
Cervical vertebrae.
Thoracic vertebrae.
Lumbar vertebrae.
Sacrum.
Coccyx.
CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
Number:
Location:
Neck.
Functions:
Support the head.
Allow movement of the neck.
Protect the upper part of the spinal cord.
The first two cervical vertebrae are particularly specialised.
Atlas:
Supports the skull.
Allows nodding movement.
Axis:
Allows rotation of the head.
THORACIC VERTEBRAE
Number:
Location:
Upper and middle back.
The ribs attach to the thoracic vertebrae.
Functions:
Support the upper body.
Help protect the spinal cord.
Provide attachment for ribs and muscles.
LUMBAR VERTEBRAE
Number:
Location:
Lower back.
These vertebrae are large because they carry a lot of body weight.
Functions:
Support body weight.
Allow movement of the trunk.
Protect the spinal cord in this region.
SACRUM
The sacrum is formed from fused vertebrae.
It connects:
Vertebral column.
Pelvis.
Functions:
Transfers forces between the spine and pelvis.
Provides stability.
COCCYX
Also called:
Tailbone.
It is made from several fused vertebrae.
It provides attachment for some muscles and ligaments.
NATURAL CURVES OF THE SPINE
The spine has natural curves.
These curves help:
Absorb shock.
Distribute body weight.
Maintain balance.
Keep the centre of gravity in a suitable position.
Allow efficient movement.
CERVICAL CURVE
Located in:
Neck.
Thoracic curve:
Upper/middle back.
Lumbar curve:
Lower back.
Sacral curve:
Pelvic region.
NEUTRAL SPINE
Neutral spine means the spine is positioned in its natural alignment.
It does NOT mean the spine is completely straight.
Maintaining a neutral spine can:
Distribute forces more evenly.
Reduce unnecessary stress.
Improve posture.
Improve movement efficiency.
Reduce injury risk.
SPORT EXAMPLE
During a squat:
The performer should maintain appropriate spinal alignment.
The core helps stabilise the trunk.
The hips and knees move to perform the exercise.
If the spine is poorly positioned under load, unnecessary stress may be placed on the back.
POSTURAL DEVIATIONS
A postural deviation occurs when body alignment differs from normal alignment.
Two important examples are:
Kyphosis.
Scoliosis.
KYPHOSIS
Kyphosis is an excessive outward curve of the upper spine.
It can cause:
Rounded upper back.
Altered posture.
Changes in movement.
Possible discomfort.
Possible effects on sport:
Reduced efficiency.
Altered muscle use.
Reduced range of movement in some activities.
SCOLIOSIS
Scoliosis is an abnormal sideways curvature of the spine.
The spine may form:
C-shaped curve.
S-shaped curve.
Possible effects:
Uneven shoulders.
Uneven hips.
Altered posture.
Changes in balance.
Changes in movement.
The effect varies between individuals.
TYPES OF BONE
There are five types of bone you need to know:
Long.
Short.
Flat.
Sesamoid.
Irregular.
LONG BONES
Examples:
Femur.
Humerus.
Tibia.
Fibula.
Radius.
Ulna.
Functions:
Movement.
Leverage.
Weight bearing.
Long bones are particularly important in sporting movements because they act as levers.
SPORT EXAMPLE
During kicking:
The femur and tibia act as parts of a lever system.
Muscles apply force to the bones.
The knee joint acts as a pivot.
SHORT BONES
Examples:
Carpals.
Tarsals.
Functions:
Stability.
Weight bearing.
Small controlled movements.
Shock absorption.
SPORT EXAMPLE
The tarsals help the foot cope with forces when:
Running.
Jumping.
Landing.
FLAT BONES
Examples:
Skull.
Ribs.
Sternum.
Scapula.
Main functions:
Protection.
Muscle attachment.
SPORT EXAMPLE
The ribs protect the heart and lungs during exercise.
SESAMOID BONES
A sesamoid bone develops within a tendon.
Main example:
Patella.
Functions:
Protect tendon.
Reduce friction.
Improve mechanical advantage.
Change the angle at which a tendon pulls.
SPORT EXAMPLE
The patella improves the efficiency of the quadriceps during knee extension.
IRREGULAR BONES
Examples:
Vertebrae.
Some facial bones.
Functions vary depending on location.
They can provide:
Protection.
Support.
Muscle attachment.
STRUCTURE OF A LONG BONE
A long bone contains several important structures.
DIAPHYSIS
The shaft of a long bone.
It is mainly made from compact bone.
Function:
Provides strength.
Helps the bone resist bending.
EPIPHYSIS
The ends of a long bone.
They contain more spongy bone.
Function:
Help form joints.
Distribute forces.
COMPACT BONE
Dense, hard bone tissue.
Functions:
Provides strength.
Provides support.
Helps resist forces.
SPONGY BONE
Also called cancellous bone.
It has a lighter, honeycomb-like structure.
Functions:
Reduces the weight of the bone.
Helps absorb forces.
Contains bone marrow.
BONE MARROW
Found inside bones.
Red bone marrow:
Produces blood cells.
Yellow bone marrow:
Stores fat.
BONE GROWTH
Bones grow and change throughout life.
Bone growth is controlled by specialised cells.
OSTEOBLASTS
Osteoblasts:
Build new bone.
They are important for:
Growth.
Repair.
Bone strengthening.
OSTEOCLASTS
Osteoclasts:
Break down old bone tissue.
This is important for:
Bone remodelling.
Removing damaged bone.
Maintaining healthy bone.
BONE REMODELLING
Bone remodelling is the continuous process of:
Breaking down old bone.
Building new bone.
This allows the skeleton to adapt to demands placed on it.
EPIPHYSEAL PLATE
The epiphyseal plate is also called:
Growth plate.
It is found near the ends of growing long bones.
It allows bones to:
Grow in length.
Children and adolescents have open growth plates.
When growth is complete:
The growth plates close.
WHY THIS MATTERS IN SPORT
Young athletes are still developing.
Training needs to be:
Appropriate for age.
Correctly supervised.
Technically controlled.
Progressed appropriately.
Excessive or poorly managed loading can cause problems around developing bones and growth plates.
FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
The skeletal system has several functions.
These include:
Support.
Protection.
Movement.
Muscle attachment.
Blood cell production.
Mineral storage.
Leverage.
Weight bearing.
SUPPORT
The skeleton provides a framework for the body.
It allows the body to:
Stand upright.
Maintain its shape.
Support body weight.
PROTECTION
Bones protect important organs.
Examples:
Skull:
Protects brain.
Ribs:
Protect heart and lungs.
Vertebral column:
Protects spinal cord.
MOVEMENT
Bones work with:
Muscles.
Joints.
Tendons.
Muscles contract.
↓
Tendons transfer the force.
↓
Bones move around joints.
↓
Movement occurs.
MUSCLE ATTACHMENT
Muscles attach to bones through tendons.
Bones therefore provide:
Attachment points.
Levers for muscle action.
BLOOD CELL PRODUCTION
Red bone marrow produces:
Red blood cells.
White blood cells.
Platelets.
Red blood cells:
Transport oxygen.
White blood cells:
Help defend against infection.
Platelets:
Help blood clot.
MINERAL STORAGE
Bones store minerals including:
Calcium.
Phosphorus.
These minerals are important for:
Bone strength.
Muscle function.
Nerve function.
The body can release minerals from bone when required.
LEVERAGE
Bones act as levers.
Joints act as pivots.
Muscles provide force.
This allows efficient movement.
JOINTS
A joint is where:
Two or more bones meet.
Joints can:
Allow movement.
Provide stability.
Absorb forces.
THREE MAIN TYPES OF JOINT
Fibrous.
Cartilaginous.
Synovial.
FIBROUS JOINTS
Fibrous joints are:
Fixed.
Or allow extremely little movement.
Bones are joined by strong fibrous connective tissue.
Example:
Sutures of the skull.
Main function:
Protection.
SPORTING IMPORTANCE
The skull needs to be stable because it protects the brain.
A large amount of movement between the skull bones would reduce this protective function.
CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS
Cartilaginous joints allow:
Limited movement.
The bones are connected by cartilage.
Example:
Between some vertebrae.
Functions:
Shock absorption.
Stability.
Limited movement.
SPORT EXAMPLE
The joints between vertebrae allow the spine to move while also helping absorb forces.
SYNOVIAL JOINTS
Synovial joints are:
Freely movable.
Most major sporting movements occur at synovial joints.
Examples:
Shoulder.
Elbow.
Wrist.
Hip.
Knee.
Ankle.
STRUCTURE OF A SYNOVIAL JOINT
Important structures include:
Articular cartilage.
Synovial membrane.
Synovial fluid.
Joint capsule.
Ligaments.
Bursa.
ARTICULAR CARTILAGE
Covers the ends of bones inside the joint.
Functions:
Reduces friction.
Absorbs shock.
Allows smooth movement.
Protects bone surfaces.
SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE
Lines the inside of the joint capsule.
It produces:
Synovial fluid.
SYNOVIAL FLUID
A thick lubricating fluid.
Functions:
Reduces friction.
Allows smooth movement.
Helps nourish articular cartilage.
JOINT CAPSULE
Surrounds the joint.
Functions:
Helps hold the joint together.
Provides stability.
Contains synovial fluid.
LIGAMENTS
Ligaments connect:
Bone to bone.
Functions:
Stabilise joints.
Limit excessive movement.
Help prevent dislocation.
BURSA
A small fluid-filled sac.
Functions:
Reduces friction.
Helps structures move smoothly over one another.
TENDONS VS LIGAMENTS
This is a very common exam point.
TENDON:
Muscle → bone.
Main function:
Transfers muscle force to the bone.
LIGAMENT:
Bone → bone.
Main function:
Stabilises a joint.
EASY MEMORY TRICK:
Tendon = muscle to bone.
Ligament = bone to bone.
TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINT
There are six main types:
Ball and socket.
Hinge.
Pivot.
Condyloid.
Saddle.
Gliding.
BALL AND SOCKET JOINT
Examples:
Shoulder.
Hip.
Allows movement in several directions.
Movements include:
Flexion.
Extension.
Abduction.
Adduction.
Rotation.
Circumduction.
SHOULDER
The shoulder has:
Large range of movement.
Less stability than the hip.
This is useful for sports involving large arm movements.
Examples:
Swimming.
Tennis.
Throwing.
HIP
The hip is also a ball-and-socket joint.
It provides:
Large range of movement.
Greater stability than the shoulder.
HINGE JOINT
Examples:
Elbow.
Knee.
Ankle.
Main movements:
Flexion.
Extension.
SPORT EXAMPLE
At the knee during a jump:
Knee flexes during preparation.
Knee extends during take-off.
PIVOT JOINT
Example:
Upper neck.
Main movement:
Rotation.
It allows the head to turn from side to side.
CONDYLOID JOINT
Example:
Wrist.
Allows:
Flexion.
Extension.
Abduction.
Adduction.
Circumduction.
It does not allow the same degree of rotation as a ball-and-socket joint.
SADDLE JOINT
Example:
Base of the thumb.
Allows movement in multiple directions.
Important for:
Gripping.
Fine hand movements.
GLIDING JOINT
Examples:
Between some carpals.
Between some tarsals.
The bones slide over one another.
Allows:
Small movements.
Flexibility.
Shock absorption.
MAJOR JOINTS AND THEIR MOVEMENTS
SHOULDER
Type:
Ball and socket.
Bones:
Humerus.
Scapula.
Main movements:
Flexion.
Extension.
Abduction.
Adduction.
Rotation.
Circumduction.
ELBOW
Type:
Hinge.
Bones:
Humerus.
Radius.
Ulna.
Main movements:
Flexion.
Extension.
WRIST
Type:
Condyloid.
Bones:
Radius.
Carpals.
Movements:
Flexion.
Extension.
Abduction.
Adduction.
HIP
Type:
Ball and socket.
Bones:
Femur.
Pelvis.
Movements:
Flexion.
Extension.
Abduction.
Adduction.
Rotation.
Circumduction.
KNEE
Type:
Hinge.
Bones:
Femur.
Tibia.
Patella.
Main movements:
Flexion.
Extension.
ANKLE
Type:
Hinge.
Bones involved:
Tibia.
Fibula.
Talus.
Main movements:
Dorsiflexion.
Plantarflexion.
TYPES OF MOVEMENT
You need to know the names of movements and what they mean.
FLEXION
Flexion:
Decreases the angle at a joint.
Example:
Bending the elbow during a biceps curl.
EXTENSION
Extension:
Increases the angle at a joint.
Example:
Straightening the elbow.
HYPEREXTENSION
Movement beyond the normal anatomical position.
Example:
Moving the hip backwards beyond neutral.
ABDUCTION
Movement:
Away from the body's midline.
Example:
Raising the arm sideways.
ADDUCTION
Movement:
Towards the body's midline.
Example:
Bringing the arm back towards the body.
ROTATION
Movement around a central axis.
Example:
Turning the head.
CIRCUMDUCTION
A circular movement.
It combines:
Flexion.
Extension.
Abduction.
Adduction.
Example:
Arm circles.
DORSIFLEXION
Movement of the foot:
Toes move towards the shin.
Example:
Raising the toes during walking.
PLANTARFLEXION
Movement of the foot:
Toes point away from the shin.
Example:
Pushing off the ground during a jump.
LATERAL FLEXION
Bending the trunk sideways.
Example:
Side bending.
HORIZONTAL FLEXION
Moving a limb across the body in the horizontal plane.
Example:
Bringing the arm across the chest.
HORIZONTAL EXTENSION
Moving the limb backwards away from the horizontal position in front of the body.
BONES, JOINTS AND MOVEMENT WORK TOGETHER
Bones cannot move themselves.
Muscles provide the force.
The basic system is:
Muscle contracts
↓
Tendon pulls on bone
↓
Bone moves
↓
Movement occurs at a joint
EXAMPLE – BICEPS CURL
Biceps contracts.
↓
Biceps pulls on its tendon.
↓
Tendon pulls on the forearm.
↓
Elbow flexes.
↓
The weight is lifted.
BONES AS LEVERS
A lever is a rigid structure that can rotate around a pivot.
In the human body:
Bones = levers.
Joints = pivots.
Muscles = force.
EXAMPLE – ELBOW FLEXION
Bone:
Radius/ulna.
Pivot:
Elbow joint.
Force:
Biceps contraction.
Resistance:
Weight being lifted.
SKELETAL RESPONSE TO EXERCISE
During exercise, forces are placed on bones.
Examples:
Impact.
Compression.
Tension.
Weight bearing.
The skeleton responds to these forces.
During regular weight-bearing exercise:
Bone remodelling increases.
Bone mineral density can improve.
Bones can become stronger.
LONG-TERM SKELETAL ADAPTATIONS
Regular exercise can cause:
Increased bone density.
Increased bone strength.
Increased ligament strength.
INCREASED BONE DENSITY
Bone becomes:
Stronger.
More resistant to stress.
This is particularly associated with:
Weight-bearing exercise.
Resistance training.
EXAMPLES
Running.
Jumping.
Dancing.
Resistance training.
INCREASED LIGAMENT STRENGTH
Regular appropriate training can improve the ability of ligaments to tolerate loading.
This can help:
Stabilise joints.
Support movement.
Reduce the likelihood of some injuries.
OSTEOPOROSIS
Osteoporosis is a condition where bones become:
Less dense.
Weaker.
More fragile.
This increases fracture risk.
Risk can increase with:
Age.
Reduced physical activity.
Some hormonal changes.
Poor nutrition.
EXERCISE AND OSTEOPOROSIS
Weight-bearing exercise can help maintain bone strength.
Examples:
Walking.
Running.
Resistance training.
Exercise should be appropriate for the person's condition.
ARTHRITIS
Arthritis is a term covering conditions affecting joints.
It can involve:
Pain.
Inflammation.
Stiffness.
Reduced range of movement.
Possible effects on sport:
Reduced mobility.
Difficulty performing movements.
Reduced training tolerance.
Pain during exercise.
APPROPRIATE EXERCISE
For someone with arthritis, appropriate exercise can help maintain:
Joint movement.
Muscle strength.
Physical function.
The type and intensity should be appropriate to the individual.
AGE AND THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
Children and adolescents:
Are still growing.
Have developing bones.
Have open growth plates.
Therefore:
Exercise should be age appropriate.
Technique is important.
Excessive loading should be avoided.
Supervision is important.
OLDER ADULTS
With increasing age:
Bone density can decrease.
Risk of osteoporosis can increase.
Joint problems can become more common.
Recovery can take longer.
Regular appropriate physical activity can help maintain:
Bone strength.
Muscle strength.
Joint mobility.
SPORTING APPLICATIONS
RUNNING
Skeletal requirements:
Femur.
Tibia.
Fibula.
Patella.
Foot bones.
Hip, knee and ankle joints.
Important movements:
Hip flexion/extension.
Knee flexion/extension.
Ankle dorsiflexion/plantarflexion.
The skeleton:
Supports body weight.
Provides levers.
Transfers forces.
SWIMMING
Important joints:
Shoulder.
Elbow.
Wrist.
Hip.
Knee.
Ankle.
The shoulder's large range of movement is particularly important.
Bones provide:
Attachment points.
Levers.
Joints allow:
Large ranges of movement.
HORSE RIDING
Important skeletal structures:
Pelvis.
Vertebral column.
Femur.
Tibia.
Fibula.
Foot bones.
Important joints:
Hip.
Knee.
Ankle.
The skeleton:
Supports posture.
Transfers forces.
Provides attachment points for muscles.
The rider needs good alignment of the:
Spine.
Pelvis.
Hips.
Knees.
Ankles.
JUMPING
Important structures:
Hip.
Knee.
Ankle.
During take-off:
Hip extends.
Knee extends.
Ankle plantarflexes.
The skeleton acts as a series of levers.
EXAM-STYLE SYSTEM LINK
A higher-mark question might ask how the skeletal system contributes to sporting performance.
A strong answer should link:
Bone
→ joint
→ muscle
→ movement
→ sporting performance.
EXAMPLE
During a vertical jump, the bones of the lower limb act as levers around the hip, knee and ankle joints. The muscles attached to these bones contract and apply force through their tendons. This causes extension at the hip and knee and plantarflexion at the ankle. The skeletal system therefore provides the structure and levers needed to transfer muscular force into upward movement.
KEY TERMS TO LEARN
Axial skeleton:
The central part of the skeleton.
Appendicular skeleton:
The limbs and the bones connecting them to the axial skeleton.
Ligament:
Connects bone to bone.
Tendon:
Connects muscle to bone.
Cartilage:
Smooth connective tissue that helps protect joints and reduce friction.
Synovial joint:
A freely movable joint.
Osteoblast:
Cell that builds new bone.
Osteoclast:
Cell that breaks down old bone.
Bone remodelling:
Continuous process of bone breakdown and rebuilding.
Epiphyseal plate:
Growth plate where long bones grow in length.
Flexion:
Decreases the angle at a joint.
Extension:
Increases the angle at a joint.
Abduction:
Movement away from the body's midline.
Adduction:
Movement towards the body's midline.
Dorsiflexion:
Toes move towards the shin.
Plantarflexion:
Toes point away from the shin.
Circumduction:
Circular movement of a limb.
Kyphosis:
Excessive outward curvature of the upper spine.
Scoliosis:
Abnormal sideways curvature of the spine.
Osteoporosis:
Reduced bone density and increased bone fragility.
Arthritis:
Conditions affecting joints that can cause pain, stiffness and reduced movement.
QUICK MEMORY SECTION
SKELETAL SYSTEM FUNCTIONS
Think:
SUPPORT
PROTECTION
MOVEMENT
BLOOD
MINERALS
LEVERAGE
BONE CELLS
Osteoblasts:
BUILD.
Osteoclasts:
BREAK DOWN.
TENDON VS LIGAMENT
Tendon:
Muscle → bone.
Ligament:
Bone → bone.
JOINT TYPES
Fibrous:
Fixed.
Cartilaginous:
Slight movement.
Synovial:
Freely movable.
SYNOVIAL JOINT TYPES
Ball and socket.
Hinge.
Pivot.
Condyloid.
Saddle.
Gliding.
SKELETAL SYSTEM EXAM CHECKLIST
You should be able to:
□ Name the major bones.
□ Identify axial and appendicular skeleton.
□ Describe the five regions of the vertebral column.
□ Explain the functions of the spine.
□ Explain neutral spine.
□ Explain kyphosis.
□ Explain scoliosis.
□ Identify five bone types.
□ Give examples of each bone type.
□ Explain osteoblasts.
□ Explain osteoclasts.
□ Explain bone remodelling.
□ Explain the epiphyseal plate.
□ Explain the functions of the skeleton.
□ Identify the three joint classifications.
□ Explain the six types of synovial joint.
□ Identify major joints.
□ Identify the bones forming major joints.
□ Explain synovial joint structures.
□ Explain ligaments.
□ Explain tendons.
□ Define all major joint movements.
□ Explain the skeletal response to exercise.
□ Explain long-term skeletal adaptations.
□ Explain osteoporosis.
□ Explain arthritis.
□ Explain the effect of age on the skeleton.
□ Apply skeletal knowledge to sport.
□ Link the skeletal system to the muscular system.
□ Explain how bones act as levers.
□ Use correct anatomical terminology in exam answers.
THE MOST IMPORTANT THING TO UNDERSTAND
Do not learn the skeletal system as just a list of bones.
Think about how everything connects:
BONES
↓
provide structure and levers
↓
JOINTS
↓
allow controlled movement
↓
LIGAMENTS
↓
provide joint stability
↓
TENDONS
↓
transfer muscular force to bones
↓
MUSCLES
↓
pull on bones
↓
MOVEMENT
↓
SPORTING PERFORMANCE
This is the type of connection you need for the higher-mark questions.