Psychological Foundations of Curriculum

Broad Goals of Topic 3

  • Operationally define key terms related to theories of learning.
  • Examine contemporary learning theories impacting curriculum design.

Definitions of Learning

  • Driscoll (1994): a persisting change in human performance/potential resulting from interaction with environment.
  • Mayer (1982): a relatively permanent change in knowledge/behavior due to experience.
  • Shuell (1986): an enduring change in behavior or capacity to behave that results from practice or experience.

Influence of Psychology on Curriculum

  • Psychology informs how teaching-learning processes are understood.
  • Guides organization of curriculum to maximize student learning.
  • Determines how much information students can absorb across content areas.

Principal Learning Theories Addressed

  1. Behaviorism
  2. Cognitivism
  3. Social Learning Theory (SLT)
  4. Social Constructivism
  5. Multiple Intelligences (MI)
  6. Brain-Based Learning (mentioned, not elaborated in transcript)

Behaviorism

  • Focus: observable, measurable behavior.
  • Learning has a biological basis; context-independent.
  • Classical Conditioning (Pavlov): Stimulus→Response\text{Stimulus} \rightarrow \text{Response}
    • Example: Pavlov’s dogs salivating to bell.
  • Operant Conditioning (Skinner): Response→Reinforcement\text{Response} \rightarrow \text{Reinforcement}
    • Components: discriminating stimulus, response, reinforcing stimulus.
    • Example: Skinner’s pigeon box—behavior shaped via feedback.
Core Tenets
  • Learning = outward expression of new behaviors.
  • Knowledge is given and absolute; learners are passive.
  • Emphasizes reflexes, feedback, reinforcement, drill, and practice.
Classroom Applications
  • Rewards & punishments; teacher responsible for learning.
  • Highly structured, lecture-based lessons.
  • Workbooks, programmed instruction, computer-assisted sequential tasks.
Practical Guidelines for Teachers
  1. Alter conditions to elicit desired behaviors.
  2. Use reinforcement to strengthen target behaviors.
  3. Use extinction/forgetting to decrease undesired behaviors.
  4. Manage undesirable behaviors by
    a. Withholding reinforcement,
    b. Highlighting future rewards,
    c. Removing privileges/punishment.
  5. Provide frequent feedback (immediate for factual, delayed for complex material).
  6. Offer practice, drill, review; monitor progress.
  7. Employ sequenced materials (workbooks, software).
  8. Motivate with special reinforcers for dull tasks (contracts, immediate rewards, varied incentives).
  9. Utilize observational learning effectively (clear models, enforced attention, practice, corrective feedback, repeated demos, transfer to similar settings).
  10. Continually assess learning (diagnose problems, set mastery levels, give feedback, integrate new & old tasks, reteach as needed).
Critiques
  • Ignores unobservable mental processes.
  • Encourages passive, one-size-fits-all learning.
  • Risk of “teacher-proof” programmed instruction.

Cognitivism

  • Emerged as response to Behaviorism; focuses on internal mental processes.
  • Knowledge stored cognitively as symbols; learning = creating meaningful symbol connections.
Discovery Learning (Bruner)
  • Inquiry-based; learners uncover facts/relationships themselves.
  • Claim: “Anyone can learn anything at any age if material is presented appropriately.”
Meaningful Verbal Learning & Advance Organizers (Ausubel)
  • Present new material systematically and connect to existing cognitive structures.
  • Use concrete "anchors" when learners struggle; then guide discovery.
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
  1. Sensorimotor (0-2 yrs): object permanence; reflex → intentional action.
  2. Pre-operational (2-7): symbolic meaning; learning enhanced by familiar concrete examples.
  3. Concrete Operational (7-11): logical relationships using tangible objects; understands reversibility, reciprocity, conservation.
  4. Formal Operational (11+): abstract reasoning, hypothesis testing, theoretical thinking.
Piagetian Processes
  • Assimilation: incorporate new experience into existing schema.
  • Accommodation: modify schema for new situations.
  • Equilibration: balance assimilation & accommodation; driving force of development.
Curriculum Implications (Tyler)
  1. Continuity – repeated practice of skills/concepts.
  2. Sequence – experiences build progressively deeper understanding.
  3. Integration – unify subject matter; avoid isolation of courses.
Curriculum Implications (Taba)
  • Match experiences to cognitive stage; sequence concepts to enable deeper thought.
  • Apply assimilation, accommodation, equilibration when introducing abstractions.
Classroom Applications
  • Inquiry projects, hypothesis testing, curiosity-driven exploration.
  • Scaffolding—stage-appropriate supports removed gradually.
Critiques
  • Still treats knowledge as absolute; mechanistic input-process-output view.
  • Limited attention to individuality & affect.

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

  • Bridge between Behaviorism & Cognitivism; emphasizes observation and modeling.
Processes for Learning from Models
  1. Attention to cues.
  2. Coding/visual storage.
  3. Retention.
  4. Accurate reproduction.
  5. Motivation.
Factors Strengthening Modeling
  • Model’s perceived power, competence, nurturance, similarity to learner, and multiplicity of models.
Identification
  1. Desire to be like model.
  2. Belief in similarity.
  3. Shared emotions.
  4. Behavioral imitation.
  • Positive models → pride; inadequate models → insecurity.
Classroom Applications
  • Collaborative/group learning.
  • Teacher modeling of responses & expectations.
  • Observation of experts.
Critiques
  • Underplays individuality, context, prior experience.
  • Learners regarded as passive receivers of sensory input.
  • Minimal emphasis on emotion & motivation.

Social Constructivism (Vygotsky)

  • Knowledge actively constructed; learning is social, contextual, dialogic.
  • Central constructs: Metacognition, Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
Vygotsky’s Perspective
  • Development is sociogenetic: shaped by cultural artifacts, dialogue, play.
  • Formal education = key locus for enculturation and psychological tool acquisition.
  • Learning precedes development; effective instruction "pulls" learners to higher levels.
  • Raises questions about teacher quality and peer tutoring efficacy.
Classroom Applications
  • Journaling & reflection.
  • Experiential, personal-focus tasks.
  • Collaborative & cooperative learning.
Critiques
  • Rejects given/absolute knowledge; viewed by some as less rigorous.
  • Conflicts with rigid age grouping and term structures.

Multiple Intelligences (Gardner)

  • Extension of Constructivist ideas; underscores metacognition, learner strengths.
  • Eight intelligences (all individuals possess):
    1. Verbal-Linguistic
    2. Visual-Spatial
    3. Logical-Mathematical
    4. Bodily-Kinesthetic
    5. Musical
    6. Naturalist
    7. Interpersonal
    8. Intrapersonal
  • Goal: leverage strengths, target weaknesses.
Classroom Applications
  • Multi-medium instruction delivery.
  • Student-centered environment.
  • Authentic assessments.
  • Self-directed learning opportunities.
Critiques
  • Limited empirical validation of distinct intelligences.
  • Insufficient evidence that MI-based curricula improve learning.
  • May dilute focus on core standards.

Brain-Based Learning (mentioned only)

  • Implies instructional design aligned with neuroscientific understanding of cognition (not elaborated in transcript).

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs & Learning

  1. Physiological – breathing, food, water, sex, sleep.
  2. Safety – security of body, resources, family, health, property.
  3. Love/Belonging – friendship, family, intimacy.
  4. Esteem – self-esteem, confidence, respect of/for others.
  5. Self-Actualization – morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, acceptance of facts.
  • Premise: basic needs must be met before higher-order learning/self-actualization can occur.

Discussion Prompts for Further Study

  • Impact of technology and social media on brain development & learning.
  • Influence of social class on learning capacity and academic experience.

Synthesis & Curriculum Design Implications

  • Effective curricula integrate behavioral reinforcement, cognitive scaffolds, social modeling, and constructivist collaboration.
  • Must account for developmental stage (Piaget), cultural context (Vygotsky), and student motivation/needs (Maslow).
  • Flexibility is key: multiple pathways (MI) for students to demonstrate understanding.
  • Continual assessment and feedback loop essential across theories.

Key Sources Referenced

  • facultyweb.anderson.edu/~jhaukerman/Learning Theory.ppt
  • Laliberte, M. D. “A Brief History of Learning Theory.”
  • Lorber, M. A. Ph.D. learningtechnologies.ac.uk resources.
  • SeLeNe reports (Birkbeck College).