Comprehensive Study Notes on Power-sharing

Overview of Power-sharing in Democracy

• Conceptual Foundation: In a democracy, power does not reside within a single organ of government. Instead, an intelligent distribution among the legislature, executive, and judiciary is fundamental to democratic design.

• Objective of the Study: Examining how democracies manage demands for power-sharing through the contrasting case studies of Belgium and Sri Lanka to derive general conclusions about the necessity and varying forms of power-sharing.

Case Study: Ethnic Composition of Belgium

• Geographic and Demographic Profile:

  • Scale: A small European country, smaller in area than the Indian state of Haryana.

  • Borders: Shares borders with France, the Netherlands, Germany, and Luxembourg.

  • Population: Slightly over $1\,crore$, which is approximately half the population of Haryana.

• Complex Ethnic Composition:

  • Flemish Region: $59\%$ of the population lives here and speaks the Dutch language.

  • Wallonia Region: $40\%$ of the population lives here and speaks French.

  • German Speakers: The remaining $1\%$ of Belgians speak German.

  • Brussels (Capital City): Displays a unique demographic split where $80\%$ of the people speak French and $20\%$ speak Dutch.

• Socio-Economic Tensions ($1950s$ and $1960s$):

  • The French-speaking minority was relatively rich and powerful.

  • The Dutch-speaking majority resented this because they received the benefits of economic development and education much later.

  • The Brussels Problem: There was an acute tension in the capital because the Dutch-speaking people, while a majority in the whole country, were a minority within Brussels.

• Definition of "Ethnic": A social division based on shared culture. Members of an ethnic group believe in a common descent due to similarities in physical type, culture, or both. They do not necessarily share the same religion or nationality.

Case Study: Diverse Social Composition of Sri Lanka

• Geographic and Demographic Profile:

  • Location: An island nation a few kilometres off the southern coast of Tamil Nadu.

  • Population: Approximately $2\,crore$ people, similar to the state of Haryana.

• Major Social Groups:

  • Sinhala-speakers: Constitute $74\%$ of the population.

  • Tamil-speakers: Constitute $18\%$ of the population.

• Tamil Sub-groups:

  • Sri Lankan Tamils: Natives of the country, making up $13\%$ of the total population, concentrated in the north and east.

  • Indian Tamils: Descendants of plantation workers who came from India during the colonial period.

• Religious Distribution:

  • Most Sinhala-speaking people are Buddhists.

  • Most Tamils are Hindus or Muslims.

  • About $7\%$ are Christians, belonging to both Tamil and Sinhala linguistic groups.

Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka

• Definition of "Majoritarianism": A belief that the majority community should be able to rule a country in whichever way it wants, by disregarding the wishes and needs of the minority.

• Post-Independence Developments ($1948$):

  • The Sinhala community sought dominance over the government by virtue of their majority.

  • The Act of $1956$: Passed to recognize Sinhala as the only official language, disregarding Tamil.

  • Institutional Bias: The government followed preferential policies for Sinhala applicants regarding university positions and government jobs.

  • Religious Promotion: A new constitution stipulated that the state shall protect and foster Buddhism.

• Consequences of Majoritarianism:

  • Alienation: Sri Lankan Tamils felt that no major political party led by Buddhist Sinhala leaders was sensitive to their culture or language.

  • Discrimination: Tamils felt denied of equal political rights and economic opportunities.

  • Political Response: Tamils launched parties/struggles for recognition of Tamil as an official language, regional autonomy, and equality in education/jobs.

  • Escalation to Civil War: By the $1980s$, political organizations demanded an independent Tamil Eelam (state) in the north and east. This led to a civil war that resulted in thousands of deaths and refugees. The war caused a massive setback to the nation's social, cultural, and economic life, eventually ending in $2009$.

  • Definition of "Civil War": A violent conflict between opposing groups within a country that becomes so intense it appears like a war.

Accommodation in Belgium

• Constitutional Changes: Between $1970$ and $1993$, the Belgian leaders amended their constitution four times to ensure all citizens could live together.

• The Belgian Model Elements:

  • Equal Representation at Center: The Constitution mandates that the number of Dutch and French-speaking ministers shall be equal in the central government. Special laws require a majority from each linguistic group for passage, preventing unilateral decisions.

  • Devolution of Power: Many powers of the Central Government were transferred to State Governments of the two regions. State Governments are not subordinate to the Central Government.

  • Brussels Government: The capital has a separate government where both Dutch and French communities have equal representation. This was a reciprocal agreement (French accepted equality in Brussels because Dutch accepted equality at the central level).

  • Community Government: A third tier of government elected by people belonging to one language group (Dutch, French, or German), regardless of their location. This body handles cultural, educational, and language-related issues.

• Outcomes: These arrangements avoided civic strife and prevented the linguistic partition of the country. Consequently, Brussels was chosen as the headquarters for the European Union.

Why Power-sharing is Desirable

• Prudential Reasons:

  • Definition: Based on prudence or careful calculation of gains and losses.

  • Mechanism: It reduces the possibility of conflict between social groups, thereby ensuring political stability.

  • Philosophy: While majoritarianism might seem attractive in the short run, it undermines the unity of the nation in the long run and can be oppressive to both minority and majority.

• Moral Reasons:

  • Mechanism: Power-sharing is the very "spirit of democracy."

  • Philosophy: Democratic rule necessitates sharing power with those affected by its exercise. Legitimate government involves citizens gaining a stake in the system through participation. People have a right to be consulted on how they are governed.

Case Study: Khalil’s Dilemma in Lebanon

• The Setting: Beirut, a cosmopolitan city that suffered a bitter civil war among various communities.

• The Sectarian Power-sharing Pact:

  • President: Must be a Maronite Catholic Christian.

  • Prime Minister: Must be a Sunni Muslim.

  • Deputy Prime Minister: Fixed for Orthodox Christian sect.

  • Speaker: Fixed for Shi’a Muslims.

• Mutual Guarantees: Christians agreed not to seek French protection, and Muslims agreed not to seek unification with Syria.

• The Conflict: Khalil, a popular man who does not practice his parents' religions (Orthodox Christian father, Sunni Muslim mother), feels the system is outdated. He wishes for a "normal" democracy where anyone with the most votes can hold office. However, elders favor the current system as a guarantee against the bloodshed of past civil wars.

Forms of Power-sharing in Modern Democracies

1. Horizontal Distribution: Power is shared among different organs of government (

   • Organs: Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary.

   • System of Checks and Balances: Different organs placed at the same level exercise different powers. Each organ checks the others, ensuring no single organ has unlimited power (e.g., judges are appointed by the executive but can check the executive's laws).

2. Vertical Division (Federal Division): Power is shared among governments at different levels.

   • Structure: A general government for the entire country (Central/Union/Federal Government) and governments at the provincial or regional level (State Governments).

   • Extended Levels: Sharing can extend to lower levels like Municipalities and Panchayats.

3. Among Social Groups: Power may be shared among religious and linguistic groups.

   • Examples: "Community government" in Belgium and "reserved constituencies" in the Indian Parliament/Assemblies, which ensure representation for socially weaker sections and women.

4. Among Political Parties and Interest Groups:

   • Competition: Ensures power does not remain in one hand for long; it changes between parties with different ideologies.

   • Coalition Government: Direct sharing of power when two or more parties form an alliance to contest or run the government.

   • Interest Groups: Traders, farmers, businessmen, and industrial workers influence or participate in governmental committees and decision-making.

Questions & Discussion

• Hypothetical Scenarios:

  • Annette (Belgium) vs. Selvi (Sri Lanka): Annette, in a Dutch-medium school, faces French-speaking students wanting French instruction. Selvi, in a Tamil-speaking northern region of Sri Lanka, wants Tamil instruction. Based on the power-sharing models, Annette’s parents would likely find success through the "Community Government" or the constitutional protections of linguistic groups in Belgium, whereas Selvi would face obstacles due to Sri Lanka’s majoritarian policies.

• German Grand Coalition: Refers to the $2005$ government formed by the Christian Democratic Union and the Social Democratic Party. Historically rivals, they formed a coalition because neither won a clear majority, demonstrating power-sharing through alliances.

• Russia vs. US Cartoon ($2005$): Highlights the concern of power concentration in the presidency. Critics argue that when the president gains too much power (as in the laws made in Russia in $2005$), it contrasts with the democratic principle of dispersed power.

• Specific Practice Examples:

  • Bombay High Court: Ordering the Maharashtra government to improve children's homes is an example of the Judiciary checking the Executive (Horizontal sharing).

  • Ontario (Canada): A land claim settlement with the aboriginal community represents sharing power with social/ethnic groups.

  • Russian Coalition: Integration of the Union of Right Forces and Liberal Yabloko Movement represents power-sharing through political party alliances.

  • Nigeria Finance Ministers: State ministers demanding income source transparency from the federal government illustrates Vertical/Federal division of power.