Latin America Test Review

Early U.S. Involvement in Latin America

Monroe Doctrine (1823)

• Purpose: Prevent further European colonialism in the Western Hemisphere.

• Core Ideas:

  • The Western Hemisphere is distinct from Europe and should remain free of European influence.

  • The U.S. will not interfere in European wars or affairs.

  • Asserted U.S. role as protector of Latin American independence, foundational to future U.S. interventions.

Texas and the Path to the Mexican-American War

• 1821: Mexico gains independence from Spain.

• Mexico invites U.S. settlers to Texas, hoping to stabilize the region.

• Problem: Settlers brought enslaved people, conflicting with Mexico’s 1829 ban on slavery.

• 1836: Texas declares independence (Texas Revolution), supported by U.S. settlers despite Mexican objections.

• 1845: U.S. annexes Texas as a state.

  • Cause: Driven by "Manifest Destiny," the belief that the U.S. had the divine right to expand.

  • Mexico views this as an act of war.

Mexican-American War (1846–1848)

• Dispute: U.S. claims border at Rio Grande, Mexico insists on Nueces River.

• 1846: Polk sends U.S. troops into disputed area; fighting begins, using “American blood on American soil” as excuse for war.

• Outcome:

  • Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848): Mexico cedes half its territory (CA, AZ, NM, etc.).

  • Expansion fuels debate over slavery in new territories.

  • Mexican populations displaced; lands expropriated by Americans.

  • Long-Term: U.S. emerges stronger; Mexico deeply weakened politically and economically.

The Spanish-American War and U.S. Imperialism

Cuban War for Independence (1895–1898)

• Led by José Martí (killed in 1895), who called for:

  • Independence from Spain

  • Social and racial equality

  • Freedom from all foreign interference (including the U.S.)

Spanish-American War (1898)

• Context: Ongoing Cuban revolt; U.S. interests in Cuban sugar plantations.

• Trigger: USS Maine explodes in Havana Harbor, sensationalist press blames Spain. "Remember Maine, to hell with Spain!"

• Outcome:

  • U.S. defeats Spain in quick war.

  • Treaty of Paris (1898):

    • U.S. gains Cuba (protectorate), Puerto Rico, Guam, Philippines.

    • Marks beginning of U.S. imperialism.

• Platt Amendment (1901):

  • Limits Cuban sovereignty.

  • Allows U.S. military intervention.

  • Establishes Guantanamo Bay as a permanent U.S. base.

U.S. Economic and Political Control in Latin America

U.S. Imperialism & “Banana Republics”

• United Fruit Company: Controlled land, politics, and economies in Guatemala, Honduras, etc.

• Economic Imperialism:

  • Local elites enriched, but majority of population remained poor.

  • Countries dependent on U.S. markets for bananas, sugar, coffee.

Guatemala and the Cold War (1954 Coup)

• President Arbenz (1951–1954): Initiates land reform, threatens UFCo interests.

• CIA-led Operation PBSuccess:

  • Arbenz overthrown in U.S.-backed coup.

  • Military dictators take over, sparking civil war (1960–1996).

  • Mayan genocide during war; 82% of victims were Mayan civilians.

• School of the Americas:

  • U.S.-run military school.

  • Trained Latin American officers in counterinsurgency; many became dictators or death squad leaders.

Nicaragua and the Iran-Contra Affair

• Sandinistas (leftists) overthrow the Somoza regime in 1979.

• Contras (right-wing ex-Somoza loyalists) begin insurgency.

• U.S. backs Contras illegally:

  • Iran-Contra Affair (1981–1986): U.S. sells weapons to Iran (despite embargo), uses profits to fund Contras (despite Congressional ban).

  • Shows Cold War obsession with anti-communism trumping legality.

Revolutionary Movements and Military Dictatorships

Che Guevara

• Argentine-born Marxist, radicalized by inequality in Latin America.

• Fought with Fidel Castro in the Cuban Revolution.

• Advocated for:

  • Unified Latin America

  • Anti-imperialism

  • Armed revolution

• Helped fight in Congo and Bolivia, captured and executed in 1967.

Chile – Augusto Pinochet (1973–1990)

• 1970: Socialist Salvador Allende elected president; U.S. funds opposition; CIA tries to prevent him from taking office.

• 1973: Military coup overthrows Allende (dies in palace), led by Pinochet, backed by the U.S.

• Pinochet regime:

  • Thousands imprisoned, tortured, or executed.

  • DINA secret police; part of Operation Condor (cross-border repression).

  • Imposed neoliberal reforms led by Chicago Boys (privatization).

  • Steps down after losing referendum in 1988; dies in 2006, never convicted.

Argentina’s Dirty War (1976–1983)

• Military junta took power amid fears of leftist insurgency.

• Carried out the “National Reorganization Process”:

  • 30,000+ disappeared.

  • Torture and repression were state policy.

• U.S. aware, often supportive.

• Fall of junta after Falklands War (1982) loss.

  • Civilian government returns 1983; trials of military leaders begin later.

Cuba and U.S. Relations

José Martí

• Fought for Cuban independence from Spain.

• Advocated for:

  • A "raceless" Cuba

  • Political and economic justice

  • End to foreign domination

Fidel Castro and the Revolution (1953–1959)

• Led by Fidel Castro and Che Guevara.

• Overthrew U.S.-backed dictator Fulgencio Batista.

• Cuba becomes communist and allies with USSR.

• Implements land reform, nationalization, literacy campaigns.

Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)

• The USSR installs nuclear missiles in Cuba.

• U.S. blockades island; standoff nearly results in nuclear war.

• Resolved: USSR removes missiles from Cuba, U.S. secretly removes missiles from Turkey.

• Leads to long-term U.S. embargo.

Special Case Study – Brazil

Colonial and Post-Independence

• Portuguese colony; last to abolish slavery in the Americas (1888).

• Pedro I declared independence (1822), became Emperor.

• 1889: Monarchy overthrown, becomes a republic.

Military Dictatorship (1964–1985)

• U.S.-backed military regime installed.

• Torture and repression common; trained at School of the Americas.

• Economic “miracle” followed by inequality.

• Transition to democracy in 1985.