Self and Personality: Comprehensive University Study Notes for Psychology

Introduction to Self and Personality

• Definition of Self and Personality: These terms refer to the characteristic ways in which individuals define their existence. They involve how experiences are organized and manifested in human behavior.

• Self: These are the ideas that people hold about themselves. It lies at the core of personality. The study of self helps in understanding individual uniqueness and similarities with others.

• Personality: This represents a relatively stable pattern of behavior that remains fairly consistent from one situation to another. Variations in behavior (how people feel and react differently in similar situations) are explained through the notion of personality.

• Function of Study: Understanding these concepts allows for the comprehension of behavior in diverse settings, helping individuals evaluate their own reactions and their relationships with others.

Concept of Self

• Totality of Experience: Self refers to the totality of an individual’s conscious experiences, ideas, thoughts, and feelings regarding themselves. These experiences define an individual's existence at both personal and social levels.

• Emergence of Self: A newborn child has no initial concept of self. The idea of self emerges as the child grows older. Significant influences include parents, friends, teachers, and other influential persons. Interactions and the meanings assigned to experiences form the basis of the self. The structure of the self is modifiable based on new internal and external experiences.

• Self as Subject and Object:

  • Self as Subject (Actor): The self is an entity that does something (e.g., "I am a dancer"). In this role, the self is the 'knower' and actively engages in the process of knowing itself.

  • Self as Object (Consequence): The self is an entity on which something is done or which is observed (e.g., "I am one who easily gets hurt"). In this role, the self is the 'known'.

• Personal and Social Identity:

  • Personal Identity: Refers to attributes that make a person different from others. Examples include name (e.g., "I am Sanjana"), qualities ("I am honest"), capabilities ("I am a singer"), and beliefs ("I am a believer in God").

  • Social Identity: Refers to aspects that link a person to a social or cultural group. Examples include religion ("I am a Hindu"), caste/tribe ("I am a Brahmin" or "I am an adivasi"), or regional identity ("I am a South Indian").

Kinds of Self

• Biological Self: Formed early via interactions with the environment, often starting with biological reflexes (e.g., a newborn crying for milk, leading to the awareness of "I am hungry"). These needs are modified by socio-cultural contexts (e.g., specific cravings vary by culture).

• Personal Self: Leads to an orientation concerned primarily with the individual. It emphasizes personal freedom, responsibility, achievement, and comforts.

• Social Self: Also known as the Familial or Relational Self. It emerges in relation to others and emphasizes cooperation, unity, affiliation, sacrifice, support, and sharing. It values family and social relationships above individual goals.

Cognitive and Behavioural Aspects of Self

• Self-concept: This is the way we perceive ourselves and the ideas we hold about our competencies and attributes. It can be general (positive or negative) or specific (e.g., positive about athletic bravery but negative about mathematical skills).

• Self-esteem: This is the value judgment a person makes about their own worth.

  • By age $6$ to $7$ years, children form self-esteem in four specific areas: academic competence, social competence, physical/athletic competence, and physical appearance.

  • High Self-esteem: Children perform better in school and are more liked by peers. It is fostered by warm and positive parenting that accepts children as competent.

  • Low Self-esteem: Can lead to anxiety, depression, and antisocial behavior. It may be caused by over-parenting where parents make all decisions for the child.

• Self-efficacy: Based on Bandura’s social learning theory. It is the extent to which people believe they control their life outcomes vs. luck or fate. High self-efficacy allows individuals to select and construct their life circumstances and reduces fear. Research shows people with high self-efficacy find it easier to quit habits like smoking.

• Self-regulation: The ability to organize and monitor one's own behavior. High self-monitoring individuals change behavior based on environmental demands.

  • Will Power: The ability to control behavior as desired.

  • Self-control: Delaying or deferring the gratification of needs for long-term goals. Indian traditions use methods like fasting (vrata or roza) to develop this.

• Psychological Techniques of Self-control:

  1. Observation of own behaviour: Providing information to modify the self.

  2. Self-instruction: Instructing oneself to behave in a specific way.

  3. Self-reinforcement: Rewarding behaviors with pleasant outcomes (e.g., watching a movie after passing an exam).

Culture and Self

• Western Perspective: Characterized by a fixed boundary between the self and others. The self and the group are distinct entities, and individuals maintain their individuality. This is described as Individualistic.

• Indian Perspective: Characterized by a shifting boundary. The self can expand to fuse with the cosmos or include others, or withdraw to focus on individual goals. The self is generally not separated from the group; they exist in harmonious co-existence. This is described as Collectivistic.

Concept of Personality

• Etymology: Derived from the Latin word persona, meaning the mask used by actors in Roman theater to change facial makeup and signal a role.

• Layperson View: Often refers only to external appearance (e.g., "good-looking"), which is superficial and often incorrect.

• Psychological Definition: Refers to unique and relatively stable qualities that characterize an individual’s behavior across different situations over time. Key features include:

  1. Possession of both physical and psychological components.

  2. Unique expression of behavior in individuals.

  3. Consistency of main features over time.

  4. Dynamic and adaptive nature in response to internal or external situational demands.

• Personality-related Terms (Box 2.1):

  • Temperament: Biologically based characteristic way of reacting.

  • Trait: Stable and specific way of behaving.

  • Disposition: Tendency to react to a situation in a particular way.

  • Character: Overall pattern of regularly occurring behavior.

  • Habit: Over-learned modes of behaving.

  • Values: Goals and ideals considered worthwhile.

Major Approaches to the Study of Personality

• Type Approach: Examines broad patterns of behavior to place individuals into categories.

• Trait Approach: Focuses on specific psychological attributes (e.g., shyness, friendliness) along which individuals differ in stable ways.

• Interactional Approach: Suggests that situational characteristics play an important role. Behavior is determined by external rewards/threats rather than just internal traits. Cross-situational consistency is often low.

Type Approaches to Personality

• Hippocrates: Classified people into four types based on humours: sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic, and choleric.

• Charak Samhita (Ayurveda): Classifies people into tridosha (vata, pitta, and kapha) based on temperament (prakriti).

• Trigunas:

  1. Sattva: Cleanliness, truthfulness, discipline, detachment.

  2. Rajas: Intense activity, desire for gratification, envy, materialism.

  3. Tamas: Anger, arrogance, laziness, helplessness.

• Sheldon’s Typology:

  1. Endomorphic: Fat, soft, round; relaxed and sociable temperament.

  2. Mesomorphic: Strong musculature, rectangular; energetic and courageous.

  3. Ectomorphic: Thin, long, fragile; brainy, artistic, and introverted.

• Jung’s Typology:

  1. Introverts: Prefer being alone, shy, withdraw from conflict.

  2. Extraverts: Sociable, outgoing, seek social activity to handle stress.

• Friedman and Rosenman:

  1. Type-A: High motivation, impatient, hurried, feels burdened. Prone to hypertension and Coronary Heart Disease (CHD).

  2. Type-B: Absence of Type-A traits; relaxed.

  3. Type-C: Prone to cancer; cooperative, unassertive, suppresses negative emotions.

  4. Type-D: Prone to depression.

Trait Approaches to Personality

• Definition: A trait is a relatively enduring quality in which people differ. Traits are stable over time and consistent across situations.

• Allport’s Trait Theory: Pioneer of trait approach. Proposed three categories:

  1. Cardinal Traits: Highly generalized; life revolves around them (e.g., Gandhi’s non-violence, Hitler’s Nazism).

  2. Central Traits: General dispositions used in testimonials (e.g., warm, sincere).

  3. Secondary Traits: Least generalized (e.g., "likes mangoes").

• Cattell: Personality Factors: Used factor analysis to identify $16$ primary or source traits (the building blocks) vs. surface traits (resulting from interactions). Developed the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF).

• Eysenck’s Theory: Based on biological/genetic factors. Two initial dimensions:

  1. Neuroticism vs. Emotional Stability: Control over feelings. Neurotic individuals are anxious and moody.

  2. Extraversion vs. Introversion: Outgoing vs. reserved.

  3. Psychoticism vs. Sociability: Hostile, egocentric, and antisocial vs. cooperative.

Five-Factor Model of Personality (The Big Five)

Developed by Paul Costa and Robert McCrae. Factors include:

1. Openness to experience: Imaginative, curious vs. rigid.

2. Extraversion: Socially active, assertive vs. shy.

3. Agreeableness: Helpful, friendly vs. hostile.

4. Neuroticism: Emotionally unstable, anxious vs. well-adjusted.

5. Conscientiousness: Achievement-oriented, responsible vs. impulsive.

Psychodynamic Approach: Sigmund Freud

• Methodology: Used free association, dream analysis, and analysis of errors.

• Levels of Consciousness:

  1. Conscious: Thoughts/feelings we are aware of.

  2. Preconscious: Activity we become aware of if we attend closely.

  3. Unconscious: Reservoir of instinctive drives and repressed sexual desires that cause conflict.

• Structure of Personality:

  1. Id: Primitive, works on pleasure principle. Seeks immediate gratification of sexual/aggressive needs.

  2. Ego: Works on reality principle. Directs id to appropriate behaviors. Patient and reasonable.

  3. Superego: Moral branch of functioning. Internalizes parental authority. Prevents guilt.

• Instincts: Libido (life instinct/sexual energy) and Death instinct (less focused on by Freud).

• Ego Defence Mechanisms: Distort reality to reduce anxiety.

  • Repression: Anxiety-provoking thoughts dismissed into the unconscious.

  • Projection: Attributing one's own traits to others.

  • Denial: Refusing to accept reality (e.g., denying HIV/AIDS diagnosis).

  • Reaction Formation: Adopting behavior opposite to true feelings.

  • Rationalisation: Making unreasonable behavior seem acceptable.

• Psychosexual Stages of Development:

  1. Oral Stage ($0-1$ year): Pleasure focus on the mouth (feeding, sucking).

  2. Anal Stage ($2-3$ years): Focus on control of urination and defecation. Conflict between id and ego demands.

  3. Phallic Stage ($4-5$ years): Focus on genitals. Oedipus Complex (boys’ love for mother, hostility to father) and Electra Complex (girls' love for father, identifying with mother). Resolution via identification with the same-sex parent.

  4. Latency Stage ($7$ to Puberty): Urges are inactive; energy focused on social/achievement activities.

  5. Genital Stage (Puberty onwards): Mature sexuality. Fixation or regression may occur if previous stages were stressful.

Post-Freudian Approaches

• Carl Jung (Analytical Psychology): Emphasized aims/aspirations. Proposed the collective unconscious containing archetypes (inherited images like God or Mother Earth).

• Karen Horney (Optimism): Challenged Freud’s view of women. Emphasized basic anxiety caused by disturbed interpersonal relationships in childhood (indifferent parents).

• Alfred Adler (Individual Psychology): Behavior is purposeful. Personality is shaped by overcoming the inferiority complex (feelings of inadequacy originating in childhood).

• Erich Fromm (Social Orientation): Humans are social beings. Potentials result from the desire for freedom, truth, and justice.

• Erik Erikson (Search for Identity): Development is a lifelong process. Central concept: identity crisis during adolescence.

Behavioural and Cultural Approaches

• Behavioural Approach: Focuses on observable data and S-R (Stimulus-Response) connections. Personality is the result of reinforcement. Children learn through conditioning (Pavlov, Skinner) and observational learning (Bandura).

• Cultural Approach: Personality is an adaptation to ecology and culture.

  • Birhor Society (Jharkhand): Nomadic hunting-gathering requires independence, autonomy, and risk-taking. Children are socialized for freedom.

  • Agricultural Societies: Socialize children to be obedient, nurturant, and responsible. These qualities are functional for the economy.

Humanistic Approach

• Carl Rogers: Emphasized the fully functioning person.

  • Self-actualisation: The inborn tendency to actualize inherited nature.

  • Real Self vs. Ideal Self: Correspondence leads to happiness; discrepancy leads to dissatisfaction.

  • Unconditional Positive Regard: Atmospheric condition needed for growth.

• Abraham Maslow: Defined a hierarchy of needs.

  • Survival needs: Biological, security, belongingness.

  • Self-actualization: Reaching fullest potential; a state of joy, love, and creativity.

• Healthy Person Characteristics: Awareness of feelings, experiencing the "here-and-now", and not being trapped in the past or future.

Assessment of Personality

• Goal: To predict behavior with maximum accuracy and minimum error. Useful for diagnosis, training, placement, and counseling.

• Self-report Measures:

  • MMPI: Revised as MMPI-2 with $567$ statements and $10$ subscales (e.g., depression, schizophrenia). Indian version: JMPI.

  • EPQ: Assessed Neuroticism, Extraversion, and later Psychoticism.

  • 16PF: Developed by Cattell; used for career guidance.

  • Limitations: Social desirability (faking good) and acquiescence (saying 'yes' to everything).

• Projective Techniques: Assess the unconscious by using unstructured stimuli.

  • Rorschach Inkblot Test: $10$ symmetrical inkblots ($5$ B&W, $2$ red, $3$ pastel). Includes "performance proper" and "inquiry" phases.

  • Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): $30$ B&W cards + $1$ blank card. Subjects tell stories about pictures. Indian adaptation by Uma Chaudhury.

  • Rosenzweig’s P-F Study: Examines aggression in frustrating situations. Indian adaptation by Pareek.

  • Sentence Completion Test: Completing sentence stems (e.g., "My greatest fear is…").

  • Draw-a-Person Test: Drawing a person and then one of the opposite sex.

• Behavioural Analysis:

  • Interview: Can be structured or unstructured.

  • Observation: Detailed guidelines required; presence of observer may contaminate results.

  • Behavioural Ratings: Used by people who know the assessee. Suffer from halo effect (one trait colors all judgment) and middle category bias.

  • Nomination: Peer assessment to choose collaborators.

  • Situational Tests: Situational stress tests where a person performs a task with non-cooperative help.

Questions & Discussion

• Review Question 1: What is self? How does the Indian notion differ from the Western? (Difference lies in fixed vs. shifting boundaries).

• Review Question 2: What is delay of gratification? (Self-control to achieve long-term goals).

• Review Question 5: Structure of personality according to Freud? (Id, Ego, Superego).

• Review Question 10: Which projective tests are widely used? (Rorschach and TAT).

• Activity 2.1: Identification through "I am" sentences reveals personal and social identity.

• Case Analysis: Arihant wants to be a singer; family disapproves despite claiming to love him. Rogers would describe this as a lack of unconditional positive regard.