Theories of emotion

Psychologists have developed various theories to explain the experience of emotion.
Many models exist, some debated for over a century.

Developed independently by William James (1884) and Carl Lange (1885).
The theory posits that the conscious experience of emotion results from the perception of autonomic arousal.
This contradicts common sense, which suggests emotion leads to arousal.
James-Lange theory: Perception of autonomic arousal leads to the conscious experience of emotion.
Example: You're fearful because your pulse is racing, not the other way around.
Different patterns of autonomic activation lead to different emotions.

Walter Cannon (1927) criticized the James-Lange theory.
Physiological arousal can occur without emotion (e.g., exercise).
Visceral changes are too slow to precede the conscious experience of emotion.
Different emotions (fear, joy, anger) exhibit similar patterns of autonomic arousal.
Cannon-Bard theory: The thalamus sends signals simultaneously to the cortex (conscious emotion) and the autonomic nervous system (visceral arousal).
Modern theorists agree that emotions originate in subcortical brain structures (LeDoux, 1996).
Most modern theorists disagree with the notion that people infer their emotions from different patterns of autonomic activation (Frijda, 1999).

Stanley Schachter (1964) proposed that emotion depends on two factors: autonomic arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal.
When aroused, people search their environment for an explanation.
Example: Arousal in traffic is labeled as anger; during an exam, it's anxiety; at a birthday, it's happiness.
Schachter agrees with James-Lange that emotion is inferred from arousal.
He reconciles this with the Cannon-Bard position by suggesting people look to external cues to differentiate emotions.
People think: 'If I'm aroused and you're obnoxious, I must be angry.'
Dutton and Aron (1974) tested this theory using a suspension bridge experiment.
Men crossing a frightening bridge were more likely to misattribute their arousal to attraction when meeting a woman.
More men from the precarious bridge called the woman for a date, supporting the two-factor theory.

Rooted in Charles Darwin's ideas on the adaptive value of emotions (1872).
Fear helps organisms avoid danger, aiding survival.
Emotions are largely innate reactions to stimuli.
Should be immediately recognizable without much thought.
Emotion evolved before thought.
Emotions originate in subcortical brain structures (hypothalamus, limbic system).
Natural selection equipped humans with a small number of innate emotions.
The main question is: what are the fundamental emotions that are universal across cultures?
Tomkins, Izard, and Plutchik proposed lists of primary emotions.
There is considerable agreement: fear, anger, joy, disgust, interest, and surprise are common.

Lisa Feldman Barrett (2017) disagrees with the idea of universal or basic emotions.
Emotions are constructed by the brain each time, depending on the environment, bodily sensations, and past experiences.
Fear is not a universal essence but a context-specific construction.
Construction depends on bodily sensations, cultural expectations, and learned expressions.
Past experiences and cultural definitions help the brain predict how to feel.
Being afraid in a dark alley differs from being afraid at a horror movie due to context.
The brain interprets racing heart as fear in one scenario and joy in another.
Emotions are not scripted universal reactions but contextual experiences created by the brain.
This explains why cross-cultural similarities in emotion are hard to find and why agreeing on a list of universal emotions is difficult.
This view represents a paradigm shift; the scientific community is still grappling with it.