Ancient Greece

Terrain: Mountainous, occupying 80% of the land, isolating regions and fostering the development of independent city-states (poleis).
Seas: Proximity to the Aegean, Mediterranean, and Ionian Seas encouraged maritime trade, colonization, and cultural exchange.
Rivers and Plains: Few large rivers; limited fertile land led to reliance on trade for food supplies.

Island of Crete: Flourished through trade, reaching Egypt and southern Greece.
Knossos Palace:
- Served as a residence, religious center, and storage.
- Decorated with colorful murals depicting nature and sporting events.
Economy and Collapse:
- Economy based on trade; borrowed techniques from other cultures.
- Collapse attributed to a volcanic eruption on Thera or invasion by Mycenaeans.

Society:
- Indo-European people; established fortified palace-centers, each ruled by a king.
- Warrior-focused society; tholos tombs for the elite.
Trade and Expansion:
- Extensive trade network; Mycenaean pottery found across the Mediterranean.
- Likely conquered Crete and incorporated Minoan culture.
Trojan War:
- Legendary conflict, basis for Homer’s Iliad; debated for historical accuracy.
Decline: Civil wars, earthquakes, and invasions led to collapse around 1100 B.C.

Characteristics:
- Decline in population, loss of writing, and reduced trade.
- Iron replaced bronze, aiding agriculture and military recovery.
Migration:
- Greeks spread across the Aegean, settling in Asia Minor (Ionia).
Homer:
- Composed Iliad and Odyssey, epic poems idealizing heroism and Greek values (arete: excellence in struggle).

Definition:
- Central political, social, and religious unit; consisted of city, acropolis, and surrounding countryside.
- Citizens divided into those with rights (male adults), no rights (women, children), and noncitizens (slaves, foreigners).
Military Innovations:
- Transition from noble cavalry to citizen-soldiers (hoplites) organized in a phalanx formation.
Expansion (750–550 B.C.):
- Colonies established across the Mediterranean and Black Sea; spread Greek culture and political ideas.

Sparta:
- Militaristic oligarchy; conquered neighbors became helots (state-owned serfs).
- Boys trained for war from age 7; adult males lived in barracks until age 30.
- Women had more freedom than in other city-states but focused on raising warriors.
Athens:
- Evolved from monarchy to aristocracy, tyranny, and finally democracy under Cleisthenes.
- Solon’s reforms ended debt slavery but maintained aristocratic land ownership.
- Cultural center with a focus on art, philosophy, and trade.

Persian Wars:
- Greek states united to repel Persian invasions (e.g., Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis).
- Victory solidified Greek confidence and identity.
Golden Age (Age of Pericles):
- Direct democracy flourished: all male citizens participated in decision-making.
- Massive rebuilding in Athens (e.g., Parthenon); Athens became the “school of Greece.”
Peloponnesian War:
- Athens vs. Sparta (431–404 B.C.); weakened all Greek states, leaving them vulnerable to Macedonia.

Philosophy:
- Socrates: Questioned moral values; developed the Socratic method.
- Plato: Advocated a perfect society in The Republic; founded the Academy.
- Aristotle: Emphasized observation and logic; tutored Alexander the Great.
Literature:
- Epic poems (Iliad, Odyssey) shaped Greek identity.
- Drama originated with tragedies (Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides) and comedies (Aristophanes).
Art and Architecture:
- Emphasized balance, harmony, and idealized human forms.
- Parthenon: dedicated to Athena, showcased classical architectural principles.
Religion:
- Polytheistic; gods like Zeus, Athena, and Apollo central to daily life and festivals (e.g., Olympic Games).
- Oracles (e.g., Delphi) consulted for divine guidance.

Alexander the Great:
- Conquered Persia, Egypt, and parts of India; spread Greek culture.
Cultural Blending:
- Greek, Egyptian, Persian, and Indian influences merged.
- Alexandria became a hub of learning and innovation.