History American People

The three sisters: beans, maize (corn), and squash create a high-calorie, nutritious diet that supports large cities and complex civilizations in Mesoamerica. This caloric surplus helps explain rapid urban growth compared to contemporaneous Europe.
European diets of the period were far less nutritious, contributing to slower urban development in Europe relative to Mesoamerica.

Origins: Aztecs were not originally from the area of present-day Mexico City; they emerged in or near the American Southwest and established a powerful city-state network around Tenochtitlan (in the valley of Mexico).
Capital and geography: Great city with causeways connecting to the coastline; expansion led to an empire.
Warfare and religion: Warfare (the mourning war) aimed to take captives alive, but captured individuals were sacrificed to satiate the Blood Gods; ritual heart extraction performed on the Great Pyramid after feasting.
Interaction with neighbors: Brutal, expansionist warfare backed by alliances with other native groups when advantageous.
Conquest of neighbors: Cortaining expansion via military campaigns against surrounding peoples.

Location and capital: Located in the Andes of South America; capital centered in Cusco with notable high-altitude, fortress-like settings (Mach0Picchu as a prominent site; high-altitude agriculture).
Agriculture: Adapted to high elevations with sophisticated terrace farming and resource management.
Distinct from the Aztecs: Different geographic base and political structure; fell to European conquest in the early 16th century.

Definition: The single largest ecological and cultural exchange in human history; transfer of microbes, crops, animals, ideas, and diseases between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres.
Positive exchanges: Potatoes, squash, and corn introed to Europe; various crops and ideas circulated widely.
Negative consequences: Diseases (e.g., smallpox, syphilis) devastate indigenous populations in the Americas.
Mortality: Approximately $8\times 10^{7}$ people died in the Americas due to infectious diseases; deaths ranged roughly from $80\%$ to $90\%$ of the indigenous population in some regions.
Why susceptibility: Indigenous peoples had no prior exposure to Old World pathogens due to long geographic isolation of the Americas.

The conquistadors: Spanish warriors, led by figures like Herne1n Corte9s and later Francisco Pizarro, with some support from native allies.
Corte9s in 1519: Departed from Veracruz with several thousand allies to march on Tenochtitlan; encountered La Malinche (Do Malin ex) as translator and intermediary.
Fall of the Aztecs: Moctezuma II was taken hostage; after a rebellion, the Spaniards retreated briefly but ultimately overran Tenochtitlan; disease and superior strategy contributed to the fall by $1531$ .
Siege of Tenochtitlan: About $85$ days; the city fell under siege, with heavy casualties and the exhaustion of defenders.
From conquest to riches: After defeating the Aztecs, Cortés continued campaigns; the map of New Spain expanded to cover present-day Mexico, Central America, and parts of northern South America.
Pizarro and the Inca: By $1532$ – $1540$ , Pizarro subdued the Inca after ambushing Atahualpa, who was held for ransom; the ransom room and gold, once delivered, did not save the Inca.
Ransom and massacre: The Spaniards captured and killed many Inca in battles; over weeks and months, resistance diminished and the empire was largely pacified by around $1540$ .
Role of horses and firearms: Germs, guns, and steel were important, but native allies, horses, and terrain often played decisive roles; Spanish advantage was not only due to firearms.

Native allies and other factors: Local alliances and large-scale pre-existing conflicts significantly aided European conquest beyond germs and steel alone.
The height of the Spanish project was aided by factors like the psychological impact of horses and unfamiliar weapons to indigenous populations.

Requerimiento (Proclamation): A formal document read to conquered peoples asserting rights to subjugate and wage war under a religious framework.
Practical issues: Often unread or incomprehensible to Indigenous communities; read after attack or later, undermining the stated legitimacy of the war.
Overall impact: Used to legitimize conquest in the eyes of European audiences, even as it was frequently ignored on the ground.

Black Legend: A narrative that exaggerates Spanish atrocities to undermine Spain and justify other European powers (France, England, the Dutch) pursuing empire elsewhere.
Purpose: To present Spanish actions as uniquely brutal and immoral, encouraging rival nations to claim a share of imperial expansion.

The New Spain empire encompassed a vast area around present-day Mexico, Central America, and extended into parts of northern South America (e.g., Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Chile).
Notable geographic detail: Introduction of horses and European animals transformed certain landscapes and Indigenous interactions with the environment.

La Malinche (Do4da Malin ex): Corte9s' indigenous translator and advisor, pivotal in forming alliances with other native groups.
Moctezuma II: Aztec emperor during the Corte9s expedition; captured and died in captivity.
Atahualpa: Inca emperor captured by Pizarro; his ransom for wealth led to further military action and eventual conquest.
Machu Picchu: Iconic Inca site in the Andes; demonstrates high-altitude engineering and social organization.