APHG Exam Prep Notes

Unit 1: Thinking Geographically

Map Types

  • Reference Map: Displays boundaries, names, and identifiers of geographic areas, including cultural and physical features (e.g., map of Louisville or the world).

  • Thematic Map: Emphasizes a particular theme or topic, central to Human Geography.

  • Cartogram: Distorts land area to represent changes in value; the greater the value, the larger the area.

  • Choropleth Map: Uses different shades to show the variation of values; darker shades usually indicate higher values.
    *Trick: "Choro"think of colors as it uses multiple different shades of COLORS

  • Dot Map: Uses dots to represent different values; more dots indicate a greater value (e.g., each dot represents 200 farms).

  • Graduated Symbol Map: Uses symbols to represent values; larger symbols indicate higher values (e.g., literacy rate).

  • Isoline Map: Connects different places that share a common value with lines.

Maps and Spatial Patterns

  • Relative Space: Defined by human interactions with the environment.

  • Absolute Space: Dimensions that can be precisely measured.

    • Compared to a container

    • A formal cultural region is a good example of absolute area

    • Absolute:

      • Quantitative (numerical) measure

      • Location: 30°N,25°W30°N, 25°W (longitude/latitude)

      • Distance: miles, kilometers etc.

      • Direction: North, South, East, West (directions on a compas)

    • Relative:

      • Qualitative (descriptive) measure that is represented by comparing location, distance, and direction to a known geographical feature

      • Location ex. Near the Washington Monument

      • Distance ex. 30 minutes South

      • Direction ex. Left, Right, Front, etc.

  • Spatial Patterns Represented on Maps:

    • Distance and Direction: Absolute and relative.

    • Uniform: Evenly spaced.

    • Clustering/Clumped: Grouped/bunched together.

    • Dispersal/Scattered: Distributed over a wide area.

    • Elevation: Levels of high/low on the Earth’s surface.

    • Agglomeration: Grouped together purposely (explained in more detail in later units).

    • Sinuous: Wavy configuration.

    • Random: No specific pattern.

    • Linear: Line configuration.

Map Projections

  • Map Projection: Transformation of latitudes and longitudes from a sphere (Earth) to a flat surface (map); all projections distort the surface in some way (distance, direction, area, or scale).

  • Mercator Projection:

    • Type: Conformal.

    • Creator: Gerardus Mercator (1569).

    • Benefits: Preserves 90° angles and straight lines of longitude and latitude; shows true direction.

    • Purpose: Best for nautical use, helping ship captains.

    • Distortion: Poles appear much larger than they are (areas become larger with latitude).

  • Robinson Projection:

    • Type: Compromise.

    • Creator: Arthur Robinson (1963).

    • Benefits: Not much distortion of continents (size is preserved); superior alternative to Mercator.

    • Purpose: Most commonly used and accurate projection; common in schools and atlases.

    • Distortion: Distorts poles.

  • Peters Projection:

    • Type: Equal-Area.

    • Creator: Arno Peters (1967).

    • Benefits: Shows accurate shapes and sizes (area) of landmasses.

    • Purpose: Used in world maps.

    • Distortion: Distorts oceans and land size.

  • Polar Projection:

    • Type: Azimuthal Equidistant.

    • Creator: Guillaume Postel (1581).

    • Benefits: Distances from the center (poles) are preserved.

    • Purpose: Used for navigation and by airline pilots to navigate routes.

    • Distortion: Distorts parallels of latitude.

  • Equal Area Map Projection

    • Oceans are distorted to minimize the distortion of the continents.

  • Conformal Map Projection

    • Preserves the shape of features on the map but may greatly distort the size of features.

Geospatial Technologies

  • Geographic Information System (GIS):

    • System designed to collect, store, analyze, and present georeferenced data (data tied to locations on Earth).

    • Built around spatial and attribute information.

    • Criticized for being expensive, creating a power divide, and promoting a Western view.

    • Used in all fields to make maps, perform analysis, share information, and solve problems.

    • Examples: Predicting fish yield in Sub-Saharan Africa, tracking deforestation in Bolivia, selecting sites for new schools in Jamaica.

  • Remote Sensing:

    • Gathers information using sensors on aircrafts and satellites without physical contact.

    • Applications in natural resource management, hazard assessment, and coastal areas.

  • Satellite Navigational Systems:

    • System of satellites providing geospatial positioning.

    • Allows receivers to determine location with precision.

    • Examples: Russia’s GLONASS, China’s BeiDou, US’s GPS.

    • Uses latitude and longitude to find location, velocity, time, and weather.

Observations of Spatial Information

Type of Account

What it is

Spatial Info You Can Gain

Field Observations

Observing people in absolute space and situations.

Architecture, Land use, Settlement patterns, climate effects.

Media Reports

Communication from media companies about different human interactions.

Land use, Agricultural patterns, economic impacts.

Travel Narratives

Written first-hand accounts from people visiting a place.

Settlement patterns, Transportation, Land use, Architecture.

Policy Documents

Official papers defining rules and regulations of a place.

Land use, Settlement patterns, economic impacts.

Personal Interviews

Someone explaining their observations or opinions.

Transportation, Settlement patterns, economic impacts.

Landscape Analysis

Study of land use and human-environment interactions.

Land Use, Agricultural Practices, architecture, climate effects.

Photographic Interpretation

Studying photographs.

Agricultural Practices, Land use, Settlement patterns, Architecture, Transportation.

*From looking at a photograph of these landscapes:

*An urban vs agricultural landscape comparison you can gain a understanding of how these spaces are used differently and the same

*From looking at these photographs you can gain the understanding that the top photo has a more industry and service based economy, while the one below it has a mostly agricultural based economy in that area.

*There are distinct types of architecture such as skyscrapers and office buildings in the top one, but barns and houses in the bottom one.

*The urban area also shows a more condensed population in the area compared to in the agricultural area.

The Power of Data

  • Geospatial Data:

    • Data with a geographic aspect referring to a position on Earth (e.g., house, building, landmark).

    • Processed and analyzed by geographical tools: Remote Sensing, GPS, and GIS.

    • Categorized as vector or raster data.

Vector data

Raster data

What it is

Uses points, lines, and polygons.

Made up of grid cells and pixels; each pixel has a value.

Represents

Spatial features like cities, roads, and streams.

Elevation, satellite images, or paper maps.

  • Uses of Geospatial Data:

    • Businesses use geospatial data for analysis, reporting, and forecasting.

    • Governments use data from censuses to show demographics and draw legislative districts.

    • Governments use tools like remote sensing, GIS, and GPS for satellite imagery.

Spatial Concepts

  • Absolute Space: Area whose dimensions can be precisely measured; often compared to a container.

    • A formal cultural region is a good example of absolute spaceSpace

  • Relative Space: Created and defined by human interactions; can be represented by a network of linked nodes.

  • Absolute Location: Fixed location usually reckoned by latitude and longitude.

    • Example: Louisville is 38.2527°N,85.7585°W38.2527° N, 85.7585° W

  • Relative Location: Position of a place in respect to other places.

    • Example: Kentucky could be defined as north of Tennessee or south of Indiana.

  • Distance Decay: Tapering off of a process or event because of distance; varies based on activity.

  • Time-Space Compression: Advances in transportation and communication lessen the effect of distance.

    • Example: Flight from Louisville to Los Angeles is about six hours, similar to driving from Louisville to Atlanta.
      *Places
      *Locality distinguished by specific physical and social characteristics.
      *Places can be identified by their absolute or relative location as well as their site and situation
      *Contributes to the social, political, and economic functioning of our world
      Stages of Transportation:
      *Horses and ships (1500s-1840s)
      *Trains and steam ships (1840s-1920s)
      *Propeller airplanes (1920s-1940s)
      *Jet airplanes (1940s- present)

Nature and Society

*(For more information, see textbook pages 263, 342-343, and 357)

Theories of Human Environmental Interaction

  • Determinism

    • Originated from the ancient Greeks-grew prominence between 19 and 20th century

    • Basic Concept:

      • How humans think, behave, and act is determined by the natural climate they are in

      • Example: Tropical Climate initiates laziness/ relaxation

    • Criticisms of Determinism

      • Cultures could say they are superior to others, based only on the climate that they live in

      • It was a very simple, cause-and-effect relationship, and other nonenvironmental factors also diversify us

      • Similar climate settings have been proven not to produce the same cultures or behaviors

  • Possibilism

    • Developed in the early 20th century as an alternative to determinism

    • Much more accepted theory since then, largely due to technological advances

    • Basic Concept

    • Humans have choices and their decision-making is the main factor in determining their success

    • The natural environment is still a factor that develops human culture and can make success more or less challenging

    • Example: air conditioning can be used to make hot weather places more livable

Scale of Analysis

  • Scale: the relationship of the size of a map to the amount of area it represents on the earth

    • Large scale vs. small scale

      • Large scale: shows less area in greater detail

      • Small scale: shows larger area in less detail

  • Scale of analysis: the level at which the data is displayed.
    * Global
    *Shows the world at one level of data
    *Ex: World
    *This level of analysis is usually not that useful
    * Regional
    *Shows data by continents or world regions
    *Ex: In this map Australia has the highest GDP per capita (PPP)
    * National
    *Shows data for one or more countries
    *Ex: In this map India has a high population density
    * Local
    *Shows subnational data
    *Ex: the states within the United States (could also show even more localized like counties, zip codes)
    *Different scales of analysis can lead to different conclusions
    * National poverty scale
    *Local poverty scale
    *Notice that although the map scale is the same for 3 of the 4 maps below, the SCALE OF ANALYSIS differs in each

Regional Analysis

  • Formal Region:

    • Region described by having unifying cultural or physical characteristics

    • Traits that can characterize a formal region:

      • Religion

      • Language

      • Political Boundaries

      • Ethnicity

    • Examples:

      • The Dairy Belt is a formal region due to the commonality of a focus in agriculture of dairy farms in states like Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan.

      • A country, such as India, is a formal region due to shared governance.

    • ***Key Question- What is the shared characteristic(s)?

  • Functional Region:

    • Region defined by a political, social, or economic characteristic. The area must also have a center of activity (a node), like a corporation, entity, or business that organizes the activity.

    • Examples:

      • TARC, Louisville's transportation service, has it's office downtown and organizes its bus systems throughout Louisville, spanning from areas like PRP to Prospect.

      • LMPD's service in Jefferson County is an example of a functional region due to its central headquarters downtown, the division offices in different neighborhoods, and the streets they patrol.

    • ***Key Questions- What is the activity? What is the extent of influence of the node???

  • Perceptual Region (Vernacular Region):

    • Region characterized by a population's sense of identity and attraction towards an area, and tend to have less-defined boundaries. Boundaries are subject to individual interpretation

    • Examples:

      • The American South is often regarded as a perceptual region due to the shared