Study Notes on Sex, Gender, and Sexuality from an APA Perspective

Sex, Gender, and Sexuality: APA Perspective

Distinctions Between Sex and Gender

  • Historically considered one and the same.
  • Psychology, among other fields, now highlights distinctions between the two.

Definitions of Key Terms

  • Sex:
    • Biological designation of being, most often categorized as female or male.
    • Involves an individual’s genetic, hormonal, and anatomical composition.
  • Gender:
    • Refers to the cultural and social meanings, experiences, and institutional structures defined as appropriate for men and women.
    • Asks the question: How are expectations for girls/women and boys/men today different than those for previous generations?

Gender Roles

  • Societal Expectations of Masculinity and Femininity:
    • Regarded as the beliefs and behaviors that a person exhibits based on societal definitions of male and female.
    • Varies across different cultures and historical contexts.

Gender's Impact on Various Aspects

  • Gender shapes life aspects including:
    • Identities
    • Interactions with Others
    • Societal Expectations

Gender Differences

  • Comparative Analysis:
    • Younger Age of Puberty: Girls tend to hit puberty earlier than boys.
    • Longer Life Expectancy: Women generally live longer than men.
    • Emotional Expression: Gender roles can influence typical ways emotions are expressed across genders.
    • Academic Performance: Differences noted in spelling and reading capabilities.
    • Sensory Abilities: Women have better olfactory capabilities.
    • Mental Health Risks: Women may face higher risks of depression and anxiety and eating disorders; whereas men may have higher suicide rates.
    • Substance Abuse: Notable differences in tobacco and alcohol use disorder risks.
    • Physical Characteristics: Men show strength and a greater likelihood of color blindness; men also run a higher risk of antisocial personality disorder and generally exhibit higher risk-taking behaviors.
    • Possible cultural/societal reasons for differences can be investigated alongside potential biological factors.

Gender Differences Visualization

  • Figure 1: A visual depiction of two distributions differing by an effect size (d) of 0.21, as cited from Magnusson (2014).
  • Psychology's Themes: Highlights that most gender differences are small, and psychology aims to explain general principles impacting behavior while considering individual differences.

Influences on Sex and Gender

  • Factors influencing sex and gender include:
    • Prenatal Hormone Exposure
    • Brain Organization
    • Behavior
    • External Anatomy
    • Gender Socialization
  • Psychological, biological, social, and cultural factors collectively influence behavior and mental processes.

Biological Influences on Sex

  • Genes:
    • XY = male; XX = female.
    • The SRY (sex-determining region of the Y chromosome) initiates the development of testes.
  • Sex Hormones:
    • Involves androgens (e.g., testosterone) and estrogens (e.g., estradiol, progesterone).

Atypical Genetic Patterns

  • XX and XY are not the sole configurations. Examples include:
    • XO: Turner Syndrome
    • XXY: Klinefelter Syndrome
    • XYY: Syndrome
  • Hormonal variations, especially atypical patterns, can fundamentally influence sex and gender development both in utero and at adolescence.

Intersex Conditions

  • Defined as conditions where biological sex characteristics are neither fully male nor female, affecting approximately 1.7% of the population (1 in 2000 births).
  • Notable conditions include:
    • Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH): Characterized by XX genes with masculinized anatomy due to high testosterone from adrenal glands.
    • Androgen Insensitivity: A condition where XY genes present typical female anatomy, with testes positioned in the location of ovaries, displaying no testosterone impact at puberty.
    • Güevedoces Syndrome: XY genes arise with typical female anatomy but experience testosterone effects during puberty.
  • Activists such as Sean Saifa Wall, Alicia Roth Weigel, and River Gallo have discussed their stories in the documentary Every Body.

Terminology Related to Gender and Sexuality

  • Sex: Biological categorization
  • Gender: Social and cultural identification
  • Gender Identity: Personal conception of oneself in relation to gender
  • Sexual Orientation: Patterns of romantic or sexual attraction to others

The Genderbread Person (v4)

  • A visual tool to help explain the nuanced distinctions between gender identity, expression, biological sex, and sexual orientation.
  • Key categories include:
    • Gender Identity: Woman-ness, Man-ness
    • Gender Expression: How individuals present gender through actions, clothing, demeanor
    • Sex: Anatomical definitions (Female-ness, Male-ness; Sex Assigned at Birth)
    • Sexual Orientation: Romantic attractions categorized as women, men, and non-binary identities.

Gender Identity Categories

  • Cisgender: When gender identity aligns with biological sex.
  • Nonbinary: When gender identity does not conform to strict male/female categories.
  • Transgender: When gender identity differs from biological sex.

Sexual Orientation Categories

  • Heterosexual: Attraction opposite sex.
  • Homosexual: Attraction to same sex (gay, lesbian).
  • Bisexual: Attraction to both sexes.
  • Asexual: Lack of sexual attraction.
  • LGBTQIA+: Comprehensive term for diverse sexual and gender identities (Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, intersex, asexual, and others).

Biological Influences on Sexual Orientation

  • Research shows same-sex behavior exists across various species.
  • Brain differences have been observed between straight and gay individuals, as well as between men and women.
  • Heritability of sexuality is about 33%, with a stronger genetic influence noted in men.
  • Prenatal factors influencing sexual orientation include prenatal sex hormone exposure and the mother’s immune response leading to the “older brother effect.”

Environmental Influences on Sexual Orientation

  • Conversion therapy: Found to be ineffective and potentially harmful.
  • In jurisdictions where same-sex relationships are prohibited, the prevalence of gay and bisexual identification mirrors that of regions where such relationships are legalized.
  • There is no evidence suggesting that having gay or lesbian parents increases the likelihood of their children identifying as LGBTQ+.

Growth in the LGBTQ+ Community

  • A notable increase in individuals identifying as members of the LGBTQIA+ community, particularly in North America and Europe.
  • Questions to explore:
    • What might explain this rise?
    • Are the increased identifications among youth and young adults a healthy trend?
    • How do biological, psychological, or sociocultural factors contribute?

Statistics on LGBTQ+ Identification

  • Graphs show the proportion of adults in the US identifying as LGBTQ+ from 2012 to 2024, reflecting a noticeable increase in LGBTQ+ self-identification, especially among younger generations.
Identification Trends
  • Percentages of LGBTQ+ identification by various demographics:
    • In 2024, Generation Z (born 1997-2006) shows the highest identification rates followed by Millennials, Generation X, Baby boomers, and Silent Generation.
  • Notable statistics compiled from Gallup polls demonstrate varied identification rates among genders and orientations.

Key Points on Workplace Gender Bias

  • Differences in Perception:
    • Historical views of leadership emphasize men over women.
    • Perceived aggression in women often leads to fewer leadership opportunities.
  • Differences in Compensation: Women in male-dominated occupations earn significantly less than men over their careers (e.g., $2,000,000 less for male doctors).
  • Family-Care Responsibilities: U.S. mothers undertake nearly twice the childcare as fathers, influencing workplace dynamics and decisions.
  • Societal Norms Influence: Gender roles and expectations remain entrenched in societal structures.

Cultural Variability in Gender Roles

  • Acknowledgment of ongoing changes in gender representation, such as women in leadership positions and workforce participation rates.

Final Points

  • Themes include distinguishing between gender differences, sex and gender identity, genetic influences, atypical hormonal patterns, cultural influences, the history of the APA, and discussion of sexual behaviors and disorders.

Conclusion and Reflection

  • Opportunity for personal reflection on what was learned and questions arising from the exploration of gender, sexuality, and their intersection with psychology and society.