American History Unit 11: The Civil War Comprehensive Study Notes

The Election of 1860 and the Onset of Secession

• Abraham Lincoln's Victory (1860): The election of Abraham Lincoln prompted the secession of Southern states for several key reasons:     * Position on Slavery: Lincoln did not publicly call for slavery to end; his platform was only to ensure it did not spread to new territories and stayed where it was currently established.     * Voting Demographics: Six out of ten people ($60\%$) voted against him.     * Ballot Exclusion: Lincoln did not even appear on the ballot in several southern states.
• The Defense of Secession: The South justified their departure from the Union using several arguments:     * States' Rights Theory: This is defined as the belief that the states hold more power than the federal government.     * Constitutional Interpretation: Arguments were made that nothing in the Constitution explicitly prevents several southern states from seceding.     * Slavery as a State Issue: The South argued that slavery was a state-specific concern rather than a federal one.
• The First State to Secede: South Carolina was the first state to leave the Union. This occurred just six weeks after the Election of 1860, before Lincoln was even inaugurated.

Formation of the Confederate States of America (CSA)

• The Montgomery Meeting: Seceding states met in Montgomery, Alabama, in February 1861 to formalize their new government.
• Government Structure: They created the Confederate States of America (CSA).     * Confederation Definition: A government where all states share equal power.     * Federal Government Comparison: A system where states give power to a stronger national government.
• The CSA Constitution: This document was created to explicitly guarantee the protection of slavery.
• CSA Leadership:     * President: Jefferson Davis.     * Vice President: Alexander Stephens.
• The Crittenden Compromise:     * Proponent: Proposed by John Crittenden of Kentucky ($KY$) in an attempt to avoid war.     * Purpose: This would have been the $13^{th}$ amendment to the Constitution.     * Terms: It would have protected slavery forever in the locations where it already existed.     * Outcome: The compromise did not pass, as Republicans were unwilling to vote for the measure.

The Firing at Fort Sumter

• Lincoln’s Inauguration Promise: Lincoln promised that the United States government would maintain and hold all its property located in the southern states.
• The Situation at Fort Sumter:     * Location: Fort Sumter was a federal fort located in Charleston, South Carolina ($SC$).     * Status: The fort was running low on supplies.     * Lincoln’s Dilemma: Lincoln had to choose between restocking the fort and exerting federal power or letting the fort go to the South. He chose to restock the fort, exert federal power over it, and enter the South without backing down.
• The Attack: Before supply ships could arrive, Confederate General Pierre Beauregard ordered the firing upon the Union-held fort on April 12, 1861.
• The Response: Lincoln immediately called for $75,000$ troops to put down what he labeled a "rebellion."     * Terminology: Lincoln referred to it as a "rebellion" rather than a "war" because he did not believe states had the legal ability to secede or create a separate country.

Strategic Position: Border States and Slavery

• Slavery's Role: While slavery was at the center of the Civil War, it was not initially addressed out in the open during the early stages. Lincoln’s demand was only that slavery not spread west.
• The Border States: These were several states that fought with the Union but still maintained slavery throughout the conflict.     * Named Border States: Missouri, Kentucky, Delaware, and Maryland.     * West Virginia: Eventually joined the Union as a border state in 1863.
• Strategic Importance of Maryland: Lincoln could not afford to lose these states, especially Maryland, which surrounded the federal capital.

Comparison of Union and Confederate Armies

• USA (Union) Advantages:     * Numerical Superiority: Total population of approximately $22,000,000$ people.     * States: Includes $23$ states.     * Economic Base: Strong manufacturing base and control of $75\%$ of the nation's railroads.     * Military Infrastructure: An established army and a large navy that grew larger as the war progressed.
• CSA (Confederacy) Context:     * States: Comprised of $11$ states.     * Population: Total population of approximately $9,000,000$, which included $3,500,000$ enslaved people.     * Railroads: Controlled only $25\%$ of railroads.     * Military: No navy at the start of the war.
• Key Weaknesses and Regional Challenges:     * Confederate Leadership: The CSA possessed superior generals who were more tactical, skillful, and better at rapid decision-making.     * Robert E. Lee: Lincoln originally met with Lee at the start of the war hoping he would lead the Union army. Lee turned the offer down because he was from Virginia.     * Invasion Necessity: The North had to invade the South to force them to follow federal rules, but this meant fighting in a "foreign land" where they did not know the lay of the land, unlike the CSA.

Military Strategies to Win the War

• USA Strategic Plan (The Anaconda Plan):     1. Blockade the Coastline: Since the South relied on imports, this was designed to "starve" the South economically.     2. Control the Mississippi River: Effectively splitting the South.     3. Separate the West from the South.     4. Capture the Capital: Seize Richmond, Virginia ($VA$).
• CSA Strategic Plan:     1. Offensive Defense: They did not have to win outright; they just had to avoid losing. They intended to pick and choose battles where victory was likely.     2. Attrition: Drag the war out until Northern civilians became "sick" of the war and demanded their political leaders bring it to an end.     3. Resource Conservation: They could not compete with Union resources or easily replenish losses.     4. King Cotton Diplomacy: Attempted to attract a foreign ally (mainly Britain or France) because the South exported close to $86\%$ of the world's cotton.     5. Direct Attack: Plan to eventually attack the North to make northerners feel the reality of war and encourage surrender.

Organization of the Armies

• Union Armies:     * The Army of the Potomac: Operated mainly in the Eastern Theater with the goal of capturing Richmond, VA. It was led by a revolving door of generals: McClellan, Burnside, Hooker, Meade, and Grant.     * The Army of the West: Operated in the Western Theater with the goal of dividing the West from the South and controlling the Mississippi River. Led by Ulysses S. Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman.
• Confederate Armies:     * The Army of Northern Virginia: The main Confederate army centered in Northern Virginia and led by General Robert E. Lee.

Major Battles of the Civil War

• Battle of Bull Run (Manassas): The first major battle; a major CSA win that destroyed the belief that the war would be short or one-sided.
• Battle of Shiloh: The first battle in the West; a Union win resulting in Tennessee falling back under Union control.
• Peninsula Campaign: A $7$-day Union campaign attempting to seize Richmond. It failed, with the CSA winning $10$ battles over the course of those seven days.
• Battle of Antietam: Robert E. Lee's first invasion of the North, targeting Harrisburg, Pennsylvania ($PA$) to convince Britain or France to provide support.     * Inconclusive Result: No definitive winner, but Lincoln used the moment to issue the Emancipation Proclamation.     * Emancipation Proclamation: Freed enslaved people specifically in the Confederacy (excluding border states). This shifted the war's focus to slavery, making it morally impossible for Britain and France to support the South.
• Battle of Fredericksburg: Known as the Union's biggest folly; they repeatedly attempted to cross a river under heavy gunfire, leading to a big CSA win.
• Battle of Chancellorsville: A massive CSA win where Lee defeated a Union army twice his size.
• Battle of Gettysburg: Lee's second invasion of the North. A massive $3$-day battle in Pennsylvania.     * Days 1 and 2: The Confederacy held the advantage.     * Day 3: Lee ordered General George Pickett to charge the Union line across an open field (Pickett's Charge). The charge was devastated, resulting in a Union win.     * Significance: This was the turning point of the war.
• The Siege at Vicksburg: Vicksburg guarded the Mississippi River from a mountainside. Ulysses S. Grant laid siege for several weeks until the city surrendered, giving the Union total control of the Mississippi River.
• Sherman's March to the Sea: William Tecumseh Sherman marched from Atlanta to Savannah, Georgia ($GA$), destroying everything of value (burning fields and destroying railroads) to force a CSA surrender.
• Battle of Appomattox Courthouse: The CSA surrendered at Appomattox. Lincoln ensured the terms were lenient: soldiers who laid down their arms and promised never to fight again faced no punishment.

The Legacy and Impact of the Civil War

• Political Consequences: The Union victory ensured slavery would be abolished. The war established that states' rights are secondary to the national government and ended Southern calls for the nullification of federal law.
• Constitutional Amendments (Reconstruction Era):     * $13^{th}$ Amendment: Ends slavery.     * $14^{th}$ Amendment: Guarantees citizenship to former enslaved people.     * $15^{th}$ Amendment: Provides former enslaved males the right to vote.
• Fatalities and Technology: The Civil War remains the deadliest war in US history. This was caused by the combination of old-school tactics (lining up in straight rows) and new technology:     * Minié ball: Cone-shaped bullets.     * Land Mines: Booby traps and shrapnel-based explosives.     * Gatling Gun: An early machine gun.
• Societal Changes:     * Women's Roles: Women served as nurses, bookkeepers, and spies. Clara Barton became famous as the founder of the American Red Cross.     * African American Military Service: The Massachusetts $54^{th}$ regiment was the first all-black regiment to fight in US history.     * Immigration and Nativism: Nativism decreased as Irish and German immigrants signed up to fight for the Union.

Questions & Discussion

• Question: Why is Maryland so important to Lincoln? Why must he keep Maryland in the Union?     * Context: Maryland surrounds Washington D.C., the capital of the Union. If Maryland joined the Confederacy, the capital would be physically located within enemy territory.
• Question: What do you think would be most rewarding about making a lifelong commitment to "being freely, faithfully, and fruitfully"?     * (Note: This appears as a recurring sidebar question in the source material regarding social commitments.)
• Question: Why do you think Lincoln is so lenient on the South at the end of the war?     * Discussion Point: Because the South is still considered part of the United States; the goal was reconciliation and reconstruction rather than permanent punishment.
• Question: What dilemma does Lincoln face at Fort Sumter?     * Analysis: If he restocks the fort, it maintains federal property but risks starting a war. If he lets it go, he allows the South to take federal property and acknowledges the legitimacy of secession.