history of the americas 1880-1981 - course companion - mamaux, smith, rogers, berliner, leggett and borgmann - oxford 2015

Course Companion: History of the Americas (1880–1981)

Overview

  • This book is a resource for students studying the History of the Americas (1880–1981) as part of the IB Diploma Programme.
  • It aims to help students understand the expectations of the IB program and to encourage critical thinking by connecting content to broader issues.
  • The book supports a whole-course approach, encouraging the use of diverse resources and promoting international mindedness, the IB learner profile, and core requirements like the theory of knowledge, the extended essay, and CAS.
  • It provides advice on assessment requirements and academic honesty.

IB Mission Statement

  • The International Baccalaureate aims to develop inquiring, knowledgeable, and caring young people who create a better and more peaceful world through intercultural understanding and respect.
  • The IB works with schools, governments, and international organizations to develop challenging programs of international education and rigorous assessment.
  • These programs encourage students worldwide to become active, compassionate, and lifelong learners who understand the value of diverse perspectives.

The IB Learner Profile

  • Inquirers: Develop curiosity and skills for inquiry and research; enjoy learning independently and throughout life.
  • Knowledgeable: Explore significant concepts, ideas, and issues locally and globally; acquire in-depth knowledge across disciplines.
  • Thinkers: Exercise critical and creative thinking skills to approach complex problems and make ethical decisions.
  • Communicators: Understand and express ideas confidently and creatively in multiple languages and modes of communication; collaborate effectively.
  • Principled: Act with integrity, honesty, fairness, justice, and respect for individuals, groups, and communities; take responsibility for actions and consequences.
  • Open-minded: Appreciate own cultures and histories, and are open to the perspectives, values, and traditions of others; seek and evaluate diverse viewpoints; grow from experience.
  • Caring: Show empathy, compassion, and respect; commit to service and making a positive difference.
  • Risk-takers: Approach unfamiliar situations with courage and explore new roles, ideas, and strategies; defend beliefs articulately.
  • Balanced: Understand the importance of intellectual, physical, and emotional balance for personal well-being.
  • Reflective: Give thoughtful consideration to own learning and experience; assess strengths and limitations for personal development.

Academic Honesty

  • Acknowledge and credit sources of information to avoid plagiarism and collusion.
  • Use footnotes and bibliographies to cite sources properly.
  • Misconduct includes plagiarism (presenting others' ideas as your own) and collusion (supporting misconduct by another student).

Paper 3 Exam Guide

  • The History of the Americas HL exam (Paper 3) covers material from 18 sections, spanning 750 to 2005 AD.
  • This book focuses on 8 sections from 1880–1981; thorough preparation requires studying THREE sections in their entirety.
  • Examination questions derive from bullet points in the course outline.
  • The exam has 36 questions (two per section); answer any three.
  • Knowledge of other regions is relevant only if it relates to the Americas.
Preparing for Essay Questions

  1. Understand Command Terms:

    • Learn what essay questions are asking you to do. Section at the end of Chapter 1 provides you with advice on how to do this. Understanding the focus of a question is vital as this is one of the skills and examiner looks for.
    • Focus words will be identified in italics.
    • Example: Examine the causes of the Quiet Revolution in Quebec in the 1960s.
      • Explain vast social change in Quebec, within the 1960–70 timeframe.

  2. Structured Essays:

    • Introduction: Show question understanding; outline factors; indicate argument.
    • Main Body: Focus on factors from the introduction; provide specific knowledge and analysis.
    • Conclusion: Summarize argument with reference to main body factors.

  3. Grading Rubric:

    • Essays are marked holistically on a 15-point scale.
    • Examiners reward what is included and done well.
Time Management
  • Allocate 50 minutes per essay in the 2.5-hour exam.
  • Plan essays before writing.
  • Take short mental breaks if needed.
  • Review essays to add material or delete irrelevancies.
Final Thoughts
  • Collaborate with classmates; use social media.
  • Enjoy the two-year IB History HL journey!

Emergence of the Americas in Global Affairs, 1880–1929

Global Context
  • The late 19th century was marked by national consolidation, modernization, and competition among European powers for resources, colonies, and influence.
  • China resisted Western domination, while India saw the rise of nationalist movements.
  • Canada was consolidating after the confederation project of 1867, adding new provinces and territories and constructing a transcontinental railway project.
  • Latin America experienced wars, modernization, and economic expansion.
Timeline

Key events:

  • 1881: US President Garfield assassinated.
  • 1886: Haymarket Riot in Chicago.
  • 1887: US Navy begins using Pearl Harbor.
  • 1895: Cuban Revolution begins.
  • 1898: USS Maine explodes in Havana harbor, Spanish–American War starts.
  • 1899: Treaty of Paris ends the Spanish Civil War ratified by US Congress.
  • 1901: US President McKinley assassinated.
  • 1904: US construction of the Panama Canal begins.
  • 1914: Canada at war with Germany, US Navy occupies Veracruz, Lusitania sunk.
  • 1915: Canadian troops gassed at the Second Battle of Ypres, Spanish–American War starts, Roosevelt Corollary used in Santo Domingo, US President Wilson orders US forces into the Dominican Republic.
  • 1917: Zimmermann Telegram, United States declares war on Germany, Brazil and Guatemala declare war on Germany, Canadians participate in Battle of Passchendaele, Canada enacts Military Service Act (conscription), Wartime Elections Act (grants vote to women relatives of soldiers) Nicaragua declares war on Germany , Canadian Expeditionary Force arrives in France.
  • 1918: Winnipeg General Strike.
  • 1920: US Congress votes against ratification of the Treaty of Versailles.

1.1 US Expansionist Foreign Policy

Key Questions
  • Why did the USA embark on a period of territorial expansion in the years 1880–1900?
  • To what extent was this expansion consistent with prior US foreign policy?
  • To what extent was there domestic opposition to this expansion?
Background
  • Post-Civil War reconstruction focused on reintegrating the South and adjusting the Northern economy.
  • Government provided land grants, subsidies, and loans to the private sector, especially for railway construction.
  • Ulysses S Grant's presidency saw aggressive Southern reconstruction and political corruption accusations, followed by the Long Depression (1873).
  • Restrictive monetary policy exacerbated the depression, leading to bank failures and labor strife.
  • The USA then experienced rapid economic expansion, driven by immigration, natural resource exploitation, and technological advancements.
  • Infrastructure networks grew, and new business models (horizontal and vertical integration) led to powerful monopolies and corporations.
  • Rapid urbanization created poor living conditions, and workers organized into unions, leading to conflicts and the emergence of socialism and anarchism.
  • This backdrop of rapid economic and social change coincided with an increasingly expansionist US foreign policy.
Ideological Reasons for Expansion
  • Monroe Doctrine:
    • Asserted US recognition of new Latin American states (1822) and opposed European intervention in the Western Hemisphere.
    • President Theodore Roosevelt expanded the doctrine with the Roosevelt Corollary, claiming the US right to manage independent states.
  • Manifest Destiny:
    • Belief in the US mission to expand beyond its 1840s boundaries, stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
    • Supported by ideas of American exceptionalism and continentalism, and molded to geographic, racial, economic, and social Darwinian worldviews.
  • Expansion as a Moral Duty:
    • Fueled by Social Darwinism (Herbert Spencer), which applied evolutionary concepts to society and justified industrial growth and expansion.
    • Thinkers such as John Fiske emphasized the evolutionary superiority of the Anglo-Saxon race.
    • Josiah Strong saw Anglo-Saxon domination as a duty, with US democracy and Christianity as the means, and imperialism/US expansion as the vehicle.
    • John Burgess argued that Teutonic races had the greatest ability to create modern nation-states, justifying subjugation of those who resisted.
    • These ideas were related to justifications for European imperialism and assimilation/subjugation of First Nations people in Canada.
Expansion as Practical Necessity
  • Realist approach based on protecting and ensuring the continued growth of the USA.
  • Alfred Thayer Mahan emphasized maritime trade and naval power as key to national greatness.
    • He advocated for secure coaling stations and control of waterways (Panama Canal).
Economic Reasons for Expansion
  • Economic leaders sought markets beyond North America due to domestic economic expansion.
  • American oil and steel companies competed with European powers, seeking new markets and resources.
  • The depression after 1873 and the gold standard put downward pressure on prices, necessitating expansion.
  • The sense grew that the US economy was destined to produce more than could be consumed by existing markets, requiring market expansion.
  • Richard Hofstadter argued that the 1893 depression intensified national self-assertion and aggression.
Political Reasons for Expansion
  • US policy sometimes lagged behind the actions of US citizens and officials abroad.
  • Samoan Islands:
    • US merchant ships used the islands as coaling stations.
    • The US, Britain, and Germany established a three-way protectorate; later, the islands were split between Germany and the USA.
  • Hawaiian Islands:
    • Missionaries, merchants, and sailors settled in the islands, leading to sugar plantations.
    • The USA dropped tariffs on Hawaiian sugar (1875), making the islands a US protectorate.
    • The McKinley tariff (1890) hurt Hawaiian sugar interests, leading US citizens to overthrow Queen Liliuokalani (1893) and petition for annexation.
    • President Grover Cleveland opposed annexation; however, the USA annexed Hawaii in 1898.
  • Venezuela:
    • A boundary dispute between the United Kingdom and Venezuela re-erupted due to gold discoveries.
    • President Cleveland and Secretary of State Richard Olney reasserted the Monroe Doctrine.
    • After negotiations, the US and Britain agreed on an arbitration treaty.

1.2 The Spanish–American War

Key Questions
  • To what extent did domestic issues in the USA cause the Spanish–American War?
  • How did the Spanish–American War affect hemispheric relations in the years after 1898?
Causes of the Spanish–American War: The Cuban Revolution
  • Cuban nationalists sought independence from Spanish colonial rule.
  • José Martí led an insurrection (1895), met with a harsh response under General Valeriano Weyler, the colonial governor.
  • The US had substantial investments in Cuba ($50 million).
  • Cuban exiles in the US agitated for independence through the “Yellow Press”.
  • The Yellow Press was led by William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer. They sent correspondents to supply accounts of these issues.
  • Some argued a free Cuba would mean expanded markets; friendly Cuba could help protect a future American controlled canal to be cut across the Isthmus of Panama.
  • President Cleveland initially refused to intervene.
The US Diplomatic Response
  • President McKinley confronted Spain diplomatically, but stopped short of intervention.
  • McKinley sought a middle ground, promising a “firm and dignified” foreign policy while avoiding territorial aggression.
  • The Yellow Press continued to highlight Spanish cruelty.
  • The De Lôme Letter (Spanish ambassador criticizing McKinley) insulted US national honor.
  • The USS Maine exploded in Havana harbor (1898), inflaming public and congressional calls for war.
  • Congress authorized the use of force; the Teller Amendment disclaimed any intention of annexing Cuba.
The USA Invades the Philippines
  • Commodore George Dewey led a US Navy squadron to Manila Bay (Philippines), destroying the Spanish fleet (May 1, 1898).
  • The US Army was less prepared; volunteers were needed and faced supply and equipment shortages as 125,000 volunteers answered President's call.
  • Troops assembled in Florida, Tennessee, and Virginia, amidst disease; most uniforms were traditional dark woolen, although to be used primarily in tropical setting.
  • The army Lacked a coherent strategic plan, leading to debates about attacking Havana or Santiago.
  • The Spanish land forces were augmented by the arrival of an obsolete squadron of ships.
    These were stationed in a difficult to defend harbor.
  • US forces (including Rough Riders led by Theodore Roosevelt) moved towards Santiago, defeating Spanish forces at El Caney and San Juan Hill.
  • A Spanish fleet attempted to break through the US naval blockade,was destroyed. The Spanish commander of Santiago to negotiate the surrender of his forces defending Santiago.
  • A force of 18,000 US soldiers embarked for Puerto Rico, and an armistice was signed by Spain and US officials on August 10.
  • The war lasted only months and cost the USA about 2,500 dead (mostly from disease).
The Aftermath: The Imperial Debate
  • Spanish representatives were forced to negotiate a treaty in Paris. The resulting Treaty of Paris ceded Puerto Rico and Guam to the USA.
  • Cuba gained its independence in accordance with the dictates of the Teller Amendment.
  • The USA paid $20 million for the Philippines and its resources.
  • Groups such as the American Anti-Imperialist League formed to oppose the annexation of the Philippines.
  • In 1899 After a brutal guerrilla war, the Philippines was discussed in the Senate. In the end, Annexation carried the day after some close votes.
  • The USA maintained an occupation force in Cuba until 1902.
  • The USA Passed the Platt Amendment (1901), which 'guaranteed' Cuban independence by forbidding Cuba from entering into foreign treaties that would ‘impair’ its independence and reserved the USA the right to intervene in Cuba to protect this independence.. The amendment further reserved for the USA was to be sold or leased military installations on the island for this purpose. popular Cuban protests, the Platt Amendment became a part of the Cuban constitution at the insistence of the USA.
  • Filipinos resisting becoming part of the USA rose against their colonizers and conducted a brutal guerrilla war until 1901.
  • The war cost close to 5,000 American lives before the rebellion was suppressed. Governor of the Philippines William Taft constructed schools and infrastructure and created a political assembly to practise a limited form of self-rule for the colony.Philippine independence independence at the close of the second world war.

1.3 US Foreign Policy

Key Questions
  • To what extent was the foreign policy of the USA from 1900 to 1916 similar to its foreign policy in the years 1880–1900?
  • To what extent was US foreign policy driven by economic considerations in these years?
The Open Door Policy
  • John Hay (US Secretary of State) introduced the Open Door Policy, asserting American trading interests in China without war.
  • The Open Door stated that there was to be no discrimination of foreign powers within a country’s sphere of influence in China.
  • The Boxer Rebellion gave the USA leverage to press the Open Door onto China; Hay also insisted China would stay nominally independent
The Big Stick
  • Theodore Roosevelt believed modernizing countries had an obligation to bring civilization to the “backward” corners of the earth.
  • The notion that the USA could achieve its foreign policy goals if it backed its interests with a credible military threat.
  • The Great White Fleet made stops at a number of ports, including Yokohama in Japan as a show of force.
The Panama Canal
  • The USA ultimately purchases the rights to build from Panama after the United States supported Panama to revolt against their Colombian overlords; this was a very real display of Roosevelt’s Big Stick foreign policy, prevented the Colombian government from crushing the revolt.The resultant government agreed to the same payment as had been promised to the Colombian government for a strip of land 10 miles (16 kilometres) wide.
    When the canal opened in 1914, North Americans saw it as a testament to their ingenuity, hard work and industry – a crowning achievement of the Progressive Era. To others in the Americas, and indeed the world, it was another example of imperialism backed by Western technological advances.
Venezuela, Santo Domingo, and the Roosevelt Corollary
  • Roosevelt articulated the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine to prevent any further incursions to collect debts on the part of foreign powers.
  • Corollary- If nations of Central and South America could not keep their financial houses in order, the USA would step in and manage their finances for them.. Roosevelt wanted to remove any pretext that European powers might have for military interventions in the Caribbean.
  • This Corollary meant Roosevelt sent a financial administrator to manage Dominican finances to stop France and Italy from forcibly collecting money they were owed by Santo Domingo and thereby threatening American strategic interests in the region.
Responding to Extraterritoriality
  • Two Latin Americans developed doctrines in response to the principle of extraterritoriality (enforcing laws outside borders).
  • Carlos Calvo (Argentina) argued extraterritoriality had no basis in international law.
  • Luis Drago (Argentina) developed the Drago Doctrine, preventing countries from using force to collect debts; adopted by the Hague Conference (1907).
Dollar Diplomacy
  • William Howard Taft replaced military might with the power of its strong economy and the financial know-how of Progressive Era financial wizards.
  • Dollar Diplomacy replace US military might with the power of its strong economy and the financial know-how.
  • It wishes to remove any pretext for European intervention in Latin America by managing the financial affairs of countries whose economies were ‘backward’ by US standards and thus ensure that European debts were paid.
    Loans from US bankers would be used to pay off European creditors. Financial managers would move in and remake the economy, if not on the US model, then to US advantage.
  • Tax collection would become more efficient, budgets regularized, and a form of the gold standard adopted.
  • As rational and ‘progressive’ as the measures seemed to the USA, Latin Americans could not help but see them as thinly veiled imperialism.
Moral Diplomacy
  • Woodrow Wilson disavowed acquisitive foreign policies, promising to encourage human rights.
  • Wilson’s aim to expand international trade with or without the consent of trading partners and also his inability to understand the nature of nationalism would eventually depend on its ability to back up good intentions and moral precepts with military force.
  • Wilson sent troops to occupy Haiti in 1915, and they would remain until 1934.
  • In Mexico Wilson was in favor the existing reforming elements which in turn gave the opening to order the US Navy to occupy Verecruz in April 1914.

1.4 The USA and the First World War

US Neutrality
  • President Wilson initially saw the war as antithetical to his foreign policy.
  • The US did not feel the same gravitational pull of alliance systems, it simply had no such systems and in addition, Wilson viewed the war as an opportunity for the to USA illustrate the benefits of peace
  • Over a quarter of the population of the USA were immigrants from Europe. If the USA chose sides, it risked tearing the country apart.
  • The USA had traditionally remained out of European affairs in the same way it hoped that Europeans would stay out of the affairs of the Americas.
    Regardless, Wilson saw the war as an opportunity for illustrations of the benefits of peace and a chance to illustrate American role of world leader.
The Allied Blockade:
  • Early in the war both sides indicated that they were unwilling to respect US neutrality. Further laying bare the prejudices of Wilson.
  • The size of US economic support alone make any blockade attempt that excluded it weak.
  • Having already acquiesced to the British blockade, Wilson felt he could not acquiesce to the German blockade.
  • The sense of Allied outrage was somewhat muted in that those that travelled on the US made ships were warned. The outrage was also derived in part from the growing fear that Germany would ignore what the USA saw as its maritime rights as a neutral country, regardless of the position of the United Kingdom.
The Deadly U-Boat
  • The first deadly impact by German blockade happened when a single torpedo fired by a U-20 struck the passenger liner RMS Lusitania as she steamed off the Irish coast in May 1915. The deadly nature of a blockade enforced by German submarines, without the provision required by international law that adequate measures be taken to ensure the safety of passengers and crew, was brought into sharp focus in May 1915.
  • She went down with 1195 of her passengers and crew, 123 of them US citizens. The Germans claimed that, as well as civilian passengers, the British ship was carrying munitions, which was true.
    • After strongly worded warnings from Wilson and after other sinkings, the Germans called off unrestricted submarine warfare in May 1916.
Getting Ready

While Wilson ran for re-election in 1916 partly on his record of keeping the USA out of the war. These arguments, anchored by Republicans and industrial interests, but also echoed by important members of Wilson’s administration, fuelled a vigorous debate in the USA as to the extent to which a neutral country should militarize
By mid-1916, after difficult legislative wrangling, long debate and some compromise, Wilson guided his bills through Congress and into law. This resulted in:

  • National Defense Act, 1916, which increased army size from 80,000 to 223,000, brought state militias under federal control.
  • Naval Expansion Act, 1916, which multi-year building plan which consisted of ten dreadnoughts.
  • Merchant Marine Act, 1916, which federal government could own ships.
    It increased federal power to regulate shipping.
The Drift to War

*Early in 1917 he presented his vision for a post-war world, a world in which disputes between countries were negotiated, armaments were greatly reduced, ships plied the seas unmolested, and nations cooperated in an organization to ensure the stability of the international economical and political system. The realities of the war were, however, conspiring against Wilson’s lofty intentions.

  • On 31 January 1917 the German ambassador in Washington announced that, starting the next day, all ships regardless of country of origin would become targets for their submarines.
  • Apart from breaking diplomatic relations with Germany, Wilson did little. It would take a curious diplomatic episode to push him and the American public over the edge to war.
    This led to the Zimmermann telegram.
The Zimmermann Telegram
  • On 25 February 1917 the British turned over to the USA a telegram that they had intercepted. In it, the German foreign minister Arthur Zimmermann promised that Mexico might regain territory lost to the USA in return for an alliance with Germany.
    The US needed to enter the war. President said that ‘Neutrality is no longer feasible.
The Selective Service Act, 1917

In his address of 2 April, Wilson had clearly stated that in his view the massive mobilization required by the war must be managed by a strong central government centred in the executive branch.
The debate that ensued proved that the divisions that had preceded Wilson’s April address had not evaporated with the declaration of war. Despite the rancour, the act was passed in May and by June millions of Americans were registering for the draft.

Financing the War Once the USA entered the war it became evident how desperate the situation in Europe had become for the Allies. In the end, taxes provided for about 30% of the cost of the war and were raised through a wide variety of duties on goods and services.

The Scale of the First World War Led All Participants to Expand Government Management of National Economies to an Unprecedented Extent.
This Mean the the Creation of Thousands of Government Agencies Includes:

  • Food Administration with future president Herbert Hoover who also guaranteed a profitable price for grain to encourage increased production.
  • War Industries Board (WIB) coordinate the production and purchase of war materials lead by Bernard Baruch
  • Fuel Administration Did the same thing for coal with a similar effect on production
  • National War Labor Board regulate labor relations without recourse to lockouts and strikes
  • Railroad Administration Coordinate for the transportation of goods from mines, factories and fields
  • Shipping Board oversaw the expansion of shipbuilding to maintain the merchant fleet in the face of the U-boat campaign

    *With the U-boat campaign. Over the course of the war, American shipping tonnage increased by a factor of 10
    Committee on Public Information (CPI) coordinated to coordinate public opinion and publish pamphlets, posters and newspapers articles to gain support for the US war effort
Women and the War
  • As in other Allied countries such as the United Kingdom and Canada, women increasingly filled the jobs vacated by soldiers.The Women's labor in the industrial sector in white-collar positions as clerks and many thousands served in the Overseas sector as nursing. In 1920 They were successful with the passing and ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment
Opposition and Repression

Opposition to the war continued during Wilson's time.
There was resistance especially in the form of the Espionage and Sedition Act, Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917 and the Sabotage Act
By the end of the war there was also more mainstream opposition to Wilson’s handling of the US effort.

American Armed Forces Overseas

The US government and army resisted this impulse. General Pershing, the US commander, wanted to enter the war with a US army distinct, intact and strong, Allied pleas.

President Wilson and the Peace of Paris
  • The 14 Points offered his idea for new state that were best deal that they could hope for from what increasingly appeared to be an inevitable defeat.
  • Wilson, however, made the decision to enter what had come to be the post-war settlement with that decision linked to post-War by having them at the Peace Conference at the end.
    There was resentment towards Germany.Wilson placed more confidence in his proposed League of Nations to mitigate what he saw as deficiencies in the broader treaty. Instead Wilson sought to bind the participants more closely to that body but insisted the Covenant of the League be included in the actual Treaty of Versailles which The Senate would vote in favor of signing on.
US Reaction to the League of Nations A tired and ill, Wilson returned from Paris. He returned to a:
  • Red Scare which Was a period of ideological repression in the United States and the 1920 presidential election
    Opposition was made due to the following:
    • Intellectuals, worried that the League would serve only to entrench the status quo of balance-of-power diplomacy in Europe.
    • Therewere was opposition due to the League of from the perspective would in the face of First Amendment challenges. 700 went to prison for speaking out during this era.
    • It had no credible replacement that supported the USA and in the process they began to be perceived as the party more likely to guide the country into the war. Wilson did his level best to encourage this perception
    • There also no real way to safeguard the future of the USA.
      With this type of infighting Wilson embarked on a cross speech which exhausted him so He suffered a stroke in early October 1919 making the vote against signature possible.
Lodge versus Wilson on the League


The result of this was the Treaty of Versailles in 1920. Economic involvement and that there had been an Impact from the war.

  • There were elements of continuity with the pre-war period.
  • US representatives, private and of official, advocated this course from very early in the war.
  • These actions in the League of Nations and the signing of treaties (Washington, Dawes plan) the USA’s role became more dominant

1.5 Canada and the First World War

Key Questions
  • To what extent did participation in the First World War affect national unity in Canada?
  • What were the economic effects of the First World War on Canada?
    How was Canada’s place in the world different in 1919 than it had been in 1914?
Pulled Into War
  • Canada, as a dominion of the British Empire, was automatically at war with Germany upon Britain’s declaration (August 4, 1914).
  • By 1912, Canadian forces were integrated into imperial defense plans.
    In 1914, Canadian leaders would commit to the total war effort sending men and material; they would mobilize the home from on behalf of the war effort.
    To facilitate this mobilization, the government passed the War Measures Act at the outbreak of the war
Mobilization:

It would send men and material and mobilize the home front for the war effort which saw passing The War Measures Act would allow right to govern by executive decree if it was thought that the war would be in trouble. Also the Minister of Militia Sam Hughes had dominate the mobilization effort. Hughes operated free from governmental interference, method and scruples.
His plan called for: -
* Ross rifle that would be suitable for trench warefare.

Embarkation of its The of its and to take a significant loss to economic demand that the war needed for the First Contingent. They landed and there for needed 30,000 troops and with Robert Borden’s order for another amount.
The organization was in its to volunteer and seeking for the most cases a lot of these reasons include:

  • Farm boy and the logger who was and would come to the recent times to to emigrate from Scotland. Most of were not the part of Germany and Mebbonites also showed not wanting to assist in the war effort.
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  • At the outset the was under by the that were to be under the War Measures Act
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The Home Front
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