NOUNS

• proper ( specific name of things, people, places )

• common ( things, people, places in general terms )

• concrete ( physical = perceived with 5 senses )

• abstract ( not physical = idea, quality or state, cannot be touched )

• collective ( group ex. family, assembly, crew )

FUNCTIONS / USES OF NOUNS

Nouns can be used as subject, direct object, indirect object, predicate nominative, object complement, direct address and appositive.

• Subject - [ what / whom ] the sentence talk about, [ what / who ] does the action.

  • ex. The student followed the teacher’s instruction. = S

• Direct Object - whom / what : [ after the verb ]

  • ex. Lucy threw the trash this morning. = S-V-DO

• Indirect Object - [ to whom / for whom ] : before the D.O

  • ex. Ben gave Jen a handbag. = S-V-IO-DO

• Predicate Nominative - rename or complement your subject : [ after linking verb ( is ,are, was, were ) ]

  • ex. David is the coach of the baseball team. = S-PN

• Object Complement - complements the D.O or name/things/places

  • ex. The committee elected Sarah as president. = S-DO-OC

• Object of the Preposition - after a preposition : ( in, on, at, to, with, for, behind, above, under )

  • ex. The children played hide and seek in the park. = S-V-PREP-OP

• Direct Address - subject with comma, directly addressing the subject

  • ex. Listen carefully, Jane. = DA

• Appositive - a noun that immediately follows and renames another noun in order to clarify or classify it

  • ex. My dog, Bruno, loves to eat fried chicken, = AP

Examples:

1. The proctor gave each examinee a test booklet. = S-TV-IO-DO

2. To see is to believe. = S-LV-PN

3. They named Mary secretary. = S-TV-DO-OC

4. My brother Jerald is a successful businessman. = S-APP.-LV-PN

PRONOUNS

• Personal Pronouns ( Subjective and Objective ) - a word that takes the place of a noun

  • Subjective – [ I, she, he, it, they, we, and you ] : subject, perform the action

  • Objective - [ me, you, us, him, her, them, and whom] : receive the action

• Demonstrative Pronouns - [ this, that, these, and those ]

• Possessive Pronouns - [ mine, ours, yours, his, hers, its, and theirs ]

• Interrogative Pronouns - [ what, which, who, whom, and whose ]

• Relative Pronouns - [ which, that, who, and whom ]

Examples:

1. Whose name appears on the card? - interrogative

2. The person whose name appears here in is a duly registered professional. - relative

ADJECTIVES

Adjective – a word that modifies or describes a noun or pronoun.

Examples:

1. Which museum did you visit in Chicago?

2. Which did you visit?

3. Leslie Silko wrote these books.

4. Leslie Silko wrote these.

5. Many shop owners decided to close their shops because of the pandemic.

6. Many were called but few were chosen.

7. A saleswoman knocked on the door. – article is an adjective

8. Athens is dry in the summer.

9. That spacious apartment is ideal for you.

ORDER OF ADJECTIVES

1. OPINION - unusual, lovely, beautiful

2. SIZE - big, small, tall

3. PHYSICAL QUALITY - thin, rough, untidy

4. SHAPE - round, square, rectangular

5. AGE - young , old, youthful

6. COLOR - blue, red, white

7. ORIGIN - Japanese, Philippine, Turkish

8. MATERIAL - metal, wooden, plastic

9. PURPOSE - cleaning, hammering, cooking

Examples:

• She is a ( black-haired, Scottish, beautiful, young, thin, tall ) woman.

• She is a beautiful, tall, thin, young, black-haired Scottish woman.

ADVERBS

An adverb is a word that modifies ( describes ) a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

Examples:

• He sings loudly.

• Very tall.

• Ended too quickly

• The players are exceptionally competent.

• She ran extremely quickly.

• He sings very loudly.

• Mr. Anderson sang magnificently.

• Mr. Anderson sang earlier.

• Mr. Anderson sang there.

Adverb of:

1. Manner

2. Place

3. Time

4. Frequency

5. Intensity

6. Degree

PREPOSITIONS

Remember: Preposition is a word used to show the relationship of a noun / pronoun to some other word in the sentence.

• About, above, across, after, against, along, amid, among, around, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, beyond, down,

• For, from, in. into, of, on, over, since, through, to, toward, under, until, unto, upon, with, within, without

CONFUSING PREPOSITIONS

1. Make/Made of vs Make/Made from

   • Made of - is used when shape of material is not changed

     • A house if made of bricks.

     • A notebook is made of paper.

   • Made from - is used if shape of the material has undergone total change.

     • Sugar is made from sugarcane.

     • Butter is made from milk.

2. In vs With

   • In — is used in the following situations.

     • Place thought of an area: in London, in Europe

     • Within a location: in the room, in the building

     • Large units of time: in September, in 1997

     • Within a certain time: in two hours, in an hour

     • By means of: speak in English, write in pencil

     • Condition: in doubt, in a hurry, in secret

     • A member of: in the orchestra, in the navy

     • Wearing: in red gown, in blue shirt

     • With reference to: lacking in ideas, rich in oil

   • WITH — is used in the following situations.

     • Accompanying: He came with her. I have my keys with me.

     • Containing: a book with a map of the island

     • By means of: I repaired the shoes with glue.

     • Manner: with pleasure, with ease, with difficulty

     • Because of: We are paralyzed with fear.

     • Agreement: I agree with you.

3. In vs. On vs. At

   • Prepositions of Time

     • In - parts of days, months, years, centuries

     • On - Holidays with “day” (on Labor Day, on Christmas Day )

       • days of the week

       • days of the month ( on fourth of July )

       • dates ( on my birthday, on December 21 )

     • At - holidays without “day”

       • ( at Easter, at Christmas)

       • time ( at noon, at midnight, at 7:00, at 4 pm)

   • Prepositions of Place

     • In - cities, countries,

     • On - Streets ( on Rizal Street )

       • Avenues ( on Pennsylvania Avenue )

       • large vehicles (on the train, on the bus, on the ship)

     • At - Addresses ( at 118 Llanera Street Entablado, Cabiao, N.E. )

       • Specific locations ( at home, at the corner )

4. Good with vs. Good at vs. Good in

   • Good at - is used with areas of expertise ( followed by a verb ) also used with gerunds

     • good at Physics, good at tennis, good at child psychology

     • good at swimming, good at singing, good at poetry

   • Good with - is used with specific objects or people ( followed by a noun )

     • good with tennis racket, good with children, good with equations

   • Good in - is used when the phrase is followed by a verb

     • good in writing poems, good in solving Math problems

5. Into vs. Onto vs. Unto

   • Into signifies:

     • Movement ( “in” - inside, “to” - direction )

       • The cat jumped into the box.

     • Transformation

       • The witch’s curse turned the prince into a frog.

   • Onto also signifies movement ( on top of something )

     • We watched in awe as Cardo jumped onto the moving train.

     • The cat jumped onto the box.

   • Unto is archaic. ( to and until )

     • Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.

     • They were together unto death. ( until )

Examples:

1. Sky was surprised when twenty people walked into the room.

2. Within seconds, a stack of new dishes and a new rack of ribs flew onto the table.

3. What was to be an intimate dinner suddenly turned into a party.

4. Poor old Phil could only mutter this prayer under his breath, “Lord let not hither company last unto the morning. I shan’t have time to sleep.”

CONJUNCTIONS - join words or group of words

Three Kinds of Conjunctions:

1. Coordinating ( Remember the mnemonic device, “FANBOYS”. )

   • For

   • And

   • Nor

   • But

   • Or

   • Yet

   • So

2. Correlative Conjunctions - are always used in pairs

   • either…or : ( used when referring to a choice between two options )

     • Either your fuel line is clogged or your carburetor needs adjusting.

   • neither…nor : ( used when two options are invalid )

     • Neither Italy nor France got the quarter finals last year.

   • both…and : ( used to emphasize the link between 2 things )

     • Both athletes and singers must train for long hours.

   • not only…but also : ( used to emphasize two related pieces of information, often highlighting that the second part is an additional or more significant point. )

     • The war caused not only destruction and death but also generations of hatred between the two communities.

3. Subordinating Conjunctions - link dependent clause to an independent clause

   • COMMONLY USED SUBORDINATIONG CONJUCTIONS:

     • after, although, as, as much as, because, before, how, if, in as much as, in order that, provided, since, so that, than, that, though, till, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, while

     • Since he excels in Mathematics, he will also enjoy calculus.

     • American literature and American history are frequently studied together because each field of study complements and enriches the other.

VERBALS AND VERBAL PHRASES

1. The Participle – is a verb form that can also be used as an adjective.

   • The waving campers boarded the bus. ( present participle )

   • The audience, pleased, applauded enthusiastically. ( past participle )

   PARTICIPIAL PHRASE : participle + any complements or modifiers

   • Nodding his head, the defendant acknowledge his guilt.

   • ( You ) Simplify the guidelines. ( imperative )

     • Simplify - transitive verb

     • Guidelines - direct object

2. The Gerund : ( -ing form of the verb that is used as a noun )

   • Reading is a great pleasure. ( subject )

   • He gave reviewing all his time. ( indirect object )

   • She has always loved dancing. ( direct object )

   • Janette’s hobby is knitting. ( predicate nominative )

   • In cooking, one must follow recipes carefully. ( OP )

   GERUND PHRASE : gerund + any modifiers or complements

   • Reading books is using time well. = S-PN

   • The judge warned him about telling lies. = OP

3. The Infinitive : is a verb form usually preceded by TO, that can be used as a noun.

   • To give is praiseworthy.

   • Samuel Johnson likes to argue.

   • Darius Green’s ambition was to fly.

SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT

• SINGULAR - refers to one person or thing

• PLURAL - refers to more than one thing.

CORNERSTONE OF THE SVA RULES

1. Singular subjects ( without s, es, ies ) take singular verbs. ( with s, es , ies )

2. Plural subjects ( with s, es , ies ) take plural verbs. ( without s, es, ies )

SVA RULES

1. Intervening Phrase and Clauses

   • The number of the subject is not changed by a phrase or clause following the subject.

     • The tape of songs from Broadway musicals ( is, are ) by Boston Pops Orchestra.

     • The author of the stories( is, are ) Leslie Silko.

2. EXPLANATORY OR PARENTHICAL PHRASES

   • such as along with, as well as, accompanied by, in addition to or together with.

     • The humanities class, along with the English subject, (plan, plans) to attend the performance of Death of a Salesman.

     • Electronic options, as well as performance, (is, are) important to buyers of new cars.

     • A single milk pail, in addition to rotting log and bricks, (appear, appears) in a painting by Andrew Wyeth.

3. Compound Subject joined by AND

   • Mood, character, and plot (is, are) elements of the short story.

   • Bacon and egg (is, are) a favorite dish.

4. Singular Subjects joined by OR or NOR

   • (Has, Have) your mother or your father signed the permission slip for the field trip?

   • Either Juan or Felipe (has, have) ever heard of “Bat Masterson”.

5. Singular subject and Plural subject joined by OR or NOR

   • Neither the students nor the teacher (want, wants) to miss the documentary film on mountain climbing.

   • Either Rachelle or her classmates (plan, plans) to report on Leonardo da Vinci.

   • Neither the statement of the problem nor the solution suggested for them (is, are) clear until you have done research.

6. Questions and Sentences beginning with THERE and HERE.

   • Here (is, are) your keys.

   • Where (is, are) the bat and ball?

7. Collective Nouns

   • A group of tourists (has, have) just arrived.

   • A group of tourists (is, are) noisily disagreeing about what to see next.

8. Expressions stating amount (time, money, measurement, weight, volume, fractions)

   • Twenty-one dollars (seem, seems) a reasonable price.

   • One third of the student body (is, are) employed after school.

9. The title of a work of art or the name of organization or a country, even when plural in form takes a singular verb.

   • Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales (include, includes) humorous characterizations.

   • The United States (call, calls) its flag “Old Glory”.

10. Nouns plural in form but singular in meaning take a singular verb.

    • Mathematics (provide, provides) a wide range of information.

11. EVERY or MANY A before a subject is followed by a singular verb.

    • Every sophomore and senior (was, were) taking a course in computer.

    • Many a person (choose, chooses) television over reading, sometimes a regrettable decision.

12. The number vs A number

    • “A number” is always plural; “the number” is always singular.

      • A number of the players (is, are) still injured from the last game.

      • The number of players accused of taking steroids (is, are) increasing weekly.

13. Collective Nouns

    • Collective nouns can be tricky since they can be treated as singular or plural depending on the context.

      • The team (is, are) winning the championship this year. (Singular, focusing on the team as a unit)

      • The team (are, is) arguing among themselves about the best strategy. (Plural, focusing on the individual members)

14. Indefinite Pronouns

    • Indefinite pronouns can also affect verb agreement. Some are always singular, some are always plural, and some can be either.

      • Each of the students (has, have) submitted their project on time. (Singular)

      • Many of the books (was, were) donated to the library. (Plural)

15. Compound Subjects

    • When subjects are joined by "and," they typically take a plural verb, but when joined by "or" or "nor," the verb agrees with the nearer subject.

      • John and Mary (is, are) going to the concert together. (Plural)

      • Neither the manager nor the employees (was, were) present at the meeting. (Plural, because "employees" is nearer)

16. Titles of Works

    • Titles of books, movies, and other works are treated as singular even if they appear plural.

      • "The Chronicles of Narnia" (is, are) a beloved series among children and adults alike. (Singular)

17. Expressions of Time, Money, and Distance

    • When expressing time, money, or distance, the subject is typically treated as singular.

      • Ten dollars (is, are) not enough to buy lunch. (Singular)

      • Five miles (is, are) a long distance to walk. (Singular)

18. Subject-Verb Agreement in Questions

    • In questions, the verb still agrees with the subject, which may come after the verb.

      • Where (is, are) the students going for their field trip? (Singular)

      • How many cookies (was, were) left in the jar? (Plural)

19. Inverted Sentences

    • In inverted sentences, where the verb comes before the subject, ensure that the verb still agrees with the subject.

      • There (is, are) many challenges in learning a new language. (Plural)

      • Here (is, are) the information you requested. (Singular)