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Describe the learning outcomes of this course

Differentiate between the different areas of neuroscience

Identify 3 neuroscience researchers in MCB and know a little about what they do.

different areas of neyroscience -

pyschology - bheaviortal and cogntivie

cognitive neuroscience

neural engineering - bioengineering with a neural focus

molecular and cellular neuroscience - disease development.

psychology - behavioral and cognitive neuroscien -

there is comupuational nueroscince

bio engineering

and molcular and cellylar nueroscien like for disease and dvelopment. there is connecitivyt and ocntuit beterry the di types of neyroscience.

again there is pyschology - computer- bioengeineering - and molculear and cellular biology

three reserachers are xin li with its research on fruit flies - xin li is the fruit fly professor researching temporal patterining i nueral progeinators and subsequenct generaiton of neural diversity. zin li with her fruit flies

compoents ofa neuron - soma , dendrites, the axon, axon terminal .there is the unipolar

bipolar, psudeo, and multipolar

unipolar have a single process. so it has once bran that goes towards the dendrites and others that go towards the axon. bipolar neurons have one drites and on axon

so bascially we got the unipolar. the soma in the middle and then one branch that extends into two that being dendrites and axons

then ther is bipolar which entends intwo to opposidte branches, one is dendrites and the other is axon

again so unipoalr, just the soma, axon, and dendrites

bipolar one end is axon and the other end is dendrites, psucod two axons… multipolar cell the som and many dendrites coming out. and the other sid eis the axon attaches to skin and muscl cells. \

so in the lextue slide we have a psudeoneuron -

so basically there are dendrites that are attached to the skin receptors. dendrites are the ones that recieve information meaning if the things that recieve information are stuck to the skin then it is a sensory neuron because it takes information and reliees it back to the body cell.

neurons haave have thei axons having muscles m8scle nuerons becuase of hte fact that their outptu is attached to muscles so they tell muscles what to do.

so sensory have their dendedrites attached to the skin - send it to tehe soma - then to soma releases it to another body cell, that cell gives it to another cell, and the dendrites recive taht ifnor and send it back through their axon back to the muscles,

remember that sesnroy neruson have dendrites attaches and mtoor have their axons attached

interneurons are the ones that are between the senosry and morot neurons that will give and get ifnroamtion from the senosry and pas sit off to the. motor neurons.

escribe the cellular components
necessary to assemble a neuron.
• differentiate between different types of
neurons based on structure.
• compare neurons to other cell types and
explain what makes neurons unique.

theres the nucleus, rought msoother er, the mitochondria, the nuclear enveoloep, NO CELL WALL<, polyribosomes, axons, soma, dendrites,

unipolar head and axon that branches off

bipolar soma in mid one side branches off to dendrites and other side to axon

multipolar - soma and dendrites coming off diectly, axon branching off

sensory neurons have their dendrietes attached toskin and then send it off through their axons into the dendrites of an intermediate neuron and thne they recievei ti and send it off to their aaxons to the dendrites of a motor neuron and then their axons attach a muscle to move.

differentiate between the different areas of neruosceince -pscyhology - computer- engineering- molecular and cellular

three neuroscience reseachers

xin li is the researchers that nvestigates fruit fly brains - regulation of temporal patterning in meaning how fruit fly’s progenitor cells keep; track of time and how they know to differenitate and subsequence ternation of neural diversity. so temporal patterinin in neural proteinators cells like stem cells and how they develop;/differenitatieon so like ingestiation of neuron differneitation in fruit fly brains of the proginator

professor xin li investigates neural differenitationi n fruit fly brains like the proginator cells and their neural diversity in fruit flies.

patrick sweeny - pattrick sweeny neural cirtu regualtion feeding and emotion. so like weig loss drugs. so the relation with feeding and emotion. how the brain deals with biological needs and emotional state to control eating bejaviors. patric sweeny is the regulation of feeding and emotion. and xin li is neitral differneitaion of fly brain proginator cells . and patric sweeny is the regulation of mood and feeding

xin - flies

patrick sweeny - feeding and emtoion

jason climer - neron communiacate with electrical impulses called aciton ptontieals. how neyrons fire and how their actcity changes tos tore memroies. how neuron chnage to store memories. this is jason climer - jason climer the other onew as sweeny. patrick sweeny and jascon climer and xin li

xin lie flies

patrick sweeny is ffeding and emotion

jason the climer neurons change and memory.

identify three neuroscience researchers in MCB and know what they do xin li is about neural diferneitaionifn fly brain. patrick sweeny is about food and emotion correlatioin. and jason climer is about how neurons change and how that changes memory storage.

different parts the axons, axon terminal, dendrite, dendrite spines

neural membrane - mitochindria, the nucleus, rough er and smoother er, the golgi, ribsoomes,

Nucleus, mitochondria, rough and smooth er, the golgi appartus, the nueral membrane, ribsomes and polyribosomes. , axon hillox. again the nucleus, soootherer, rought er, mitchonxria, golig, ribosomes, poyribosomes, the neural membrane, and axon hillox

theseinter neyrosn are in the spinal cord and needed to make a reflex, these internerons are in the spinal cord to make a reflex.

neurons have dedrite spines that are needed for symaptic function dynatmic structres

there are charged atoms ions postive and negative in our molcules.

so bascially neurons have psholipid bilayers that seperates the cytosol and the extracellular stuff. the head uis hyrodrphilic and the tail is hydrophobic. the phosholipid bilyare is peramble

the phsoholipid bilayeri s not peramble to ions like na k cl or ca they are charged and cannot go rhgouj but neurons that are permable

so bascially ions floow theorugh the cell membrane oni ts own it isnt permable to ions becuas ehty cant cros sbut they need ion channel prtoeisn to allow them to be peramb;e.

so the resting poeintial of a neuron membrane is -65mV

equlibrium potinetial. this means that there is the same oumt of ions inside and outside and there is no net movment of the ions. the vM would be 0 because the reqion eauals 1;1

so the restin gpotineaitl of a neuron memnrabe is -65 and at equlitbrium it is 0 mV ecause there is equal diffusion and euql ions in and out and no net movment.

resing potiential is at -65mV thenegative sign means that the inside of the nruson is more negative than the outside.

voltate is the charge difference

so when the membrane is at resgint then there is more psotive ouside and mroe negative iside.

so bascially in rest there is more

so in resting the k+ leaks out outside the membrane, and negative charges stay inside, the na/k+ pumps move psotivly charges out. so three na+ goes out and 2k+ goes inside.

so the k+ leaks out

three na” go out and two k"+ goes in.

so more na outside the cell and k+ inside the cell. we got calcium and chloride. what does it mean

there is electircal graident wher there is psotive charged ions moving towards negatie charged areas, and the other way

chemical graident is ions of high concentraiton diffuse to areas of low concentration.

okei refresher so bascially ath the restin ptoitnial we got more psotive than negative insid ethe clel so there is na ca and cl

inide we jsut go some cle barely but more k+ and anions

this is the respting potintial

there is thre na being punped out and two k+ going in

so how do we make a graident therea re two types of gradients

electri graident is psotive and negative switching, so like postive ions going towards negatiev and negative going towards psotive.

chemical graident is just like concentraiton of going high to low lolololoolollolo. Again ther eis electric gradients from postiive to negative or negative to psotive or just conentration of of ions of going high to low .

concentrationg raident is going high to low

electri fradient is going psotive to negative or negative to psotiive.

think of electrical gradient as like ions moving ions ae charged they are electirc

and chmical is just diffusion.

ions at equilirbium are just like eul amounts of ions in and outside

so ion flow into and out of the neurons.

the cell membrane is serpated the outside and the inside. it is described as being selectivley permabel which means that some molcules are able to travel across the membrane easily while other have an intermediate ability to cross

the cell membrane seprates out and in , it is selvtibley perable meanign some can cross mr eaily like gas molcules of water , like moclules and charged need he;p through chanels there are two laers of the memrbane. he middle is hydrophobic tails forming a bariier to water and water soluble molcules like ions.

most cells of the oyd including neurons hav specialized tranmembrane proteisn emb edded in the cell membrane these tranmembrane proteins are huge protien compexes that span the entirety of the memrbane.

most cells of the body including neurosn have spexialized trmamebrane. they have ion channels that aree embedded through the neral membrane. thes channels cn be opened anc lsoed in differfent ways.

ther eis leak channesl taht are open always

voltage gated ion channels that reponse to change in the ptoeinal ligand gated

ions at equilibrium meaning ther eis no net charge or movment ther eis equal movment of ions going inside and outside the cell.

for gradients to deviate away form the resting potiential there needs to be channels open to allow ions to flow in and out of the cell.

cnalle shav eto be open to allow ions through, no cureent is permable channel . so we need channels to open to allow the perambility of ions to go through .

so its at resting potinetial ther eis more na+ and overfall postigvge charge outside than the negvatiev charge inside and the K+ inside. so the sodium (na+) channels open and then the sodium na+ will go into the the cell(electrochem gradeitns). so because the inside is more negative and the na+ is gvoing towards the negative it is an electrochemical gradient that is driving the sodium into the cell. the sodium moves into the cell. the nerons membrane poritienal will become more psotive so the (mv) increases. it becomes more postive. the electricla gradient will no longer work to drive sodium into the cell because its balanced out with regards to the postive going towards the negative.

so the membrane is at resting state -65mV. the nside is more negative and the na+ concentration is much higher than the inside. eelctrochm grfandien favors na goinginside form high to low postive to negative. so the chanels open and the psotive charge enters the cell, so the inside beomces less negative (depolarize) t. as the membran protein rises to 0mv the electrical gradient engative to na+ weakens and the chemical graident will psuh in na+ inside because there is still more outside than in. then the elctircal graident again will balance it out and the net na+ movent is o and the na+ euilirbium poteintial is 60mv. at one potin the electrical force sewthces directions. the electrical gradient in the end will push it out.

so the equilirbiumj proetinal for na+ is 60

for k+ is -85 and cl is -65mv

the quilirbium proitnial of an ion is calculated through the nernst equlation.

okie so again there is a differente and the gaidents switch off to get to the ptoential of a na+ whic is 60 for k+is -85 an cl is -65mv. the quilirbium prointeial of a ion is measured through nersnst equilibrijm equaiton

so when the membran potintial moves towards zero

depolarizing means to become less negative.

so basically when the cell says it has a membrane potineital that is at rest the mv(the difference of charge between the inside and outside of the cell) is at -65 of a cell regularlay. so basically it means there is more engative ions inside the cell thna psotitve which is outside. so basically what happens is that there is going to be more na+, cl-, and ca2+ outside the cell and inside the cell there is going to be more k+ and negation anions inside. this is when the cell’s membrane is at resting potential.

there is a difference between gradients, there is a chemical gradient/concentration graident that will move molcules based on how many there are inside and outise so it will use diffusion to move them from highest concentration to lowest. and there is electrochemical gradient that will move from negative to postiive, or psotive to negative.

So when there is a na+ channels open in the membrane what happens is that the na+ will move from the postive side of the membrane to the negative which is inside which is derived by electrochemical gradient. then itll slow down because the amount of postive and negative will equal out, btu there is still a lot more na+ outside the membrane so chemical gradient takes over and this means that the na+ will further go in, now the inside is more postive inside and the outside so the electrochemical gradient takes over again and pushes some na+ out of the cell. This na+ going into the cell will cause the membrane to depolarize. the final equilirbium membrane protiential of na+ is 60mv. which is the oppsoite of the resting peointial of the membrane. for k+ is -85 which hyperpolarizes because it makes the membrane more negative inide, and for cl-+ is -65mv…

nernst equation finds the equilibrium potential of a ion.

but when the membran poteintial is at rest there are more potassium channels that are acutall more open to k+. potassium can corss the membrane at rest rhough leak channels, since the memrbane is peramble to posttium at rest due to the non gated channesl potassium flows across the memrbaene, the elctrogradeitn at work will cause it to flow out of the cells memebrnae ptointialt owards potassium equiielihm potiential of -85mv. and hyperpolarize the cells. but its permabel when at rest to k+ then wont it stay at -85mv? the anser is no because there are other ions moving in and out. there are other non gated ion channels as well. these are fewer channels than potassium. chloride cna slo go in and out. so chlroidude will move out as well to ensure that the cell isnde too negative inside and keep it at the membrane resting poeintial. slightly more psotive than postssiums eaqilirbium proteintial.

how is the membrane kept at rest when the membrane is most soluable to k+ channels? well if its most permable to k+ then elecotrgemical gradient will push the k+ out of the cell and into the postive side and makes the inside more negative dropping the potential closer to -85mv. but how is the resting peointial kept? well the cell is also permable to some na and cl but not as much. So cl- will also leave cuz its permable

as ions move acorss the memrbae at rest or ewhen it is activte concentrion change.

sodium potasisym pump uses atp to move in three sodium ions out of the cell and two potassium into the cells. this moves it against heir electrogradient. that is why it needs energy. the pump fnctions to keep the ionic conectraiton at proper levels inside and oustide the cells. it takes three na+ and two k+

remeber that the nernst equation is for calculation the equilibrium proteintial of a ion.

now the goldman equation is for calcuating membrane proeintial.

nerns is for th equilirbium poteintial of a n ion

and goldman is for the membrane proiential.

we can use th euqilirbium peointiatl of an ion to determines its movment with a given embrane protential

4-chnage in membran poeitnaitl - if the membran poteintial moves toward zero it is depoarlzing the inside is less negative and decreases in emembran proteinal(loses its potential) when we hyperolize we increas eht peoitnaitl and it goes lower than restig ptoiential.

action ptoeintail is a change in electircla poatientail which is the change in charge between the inside and outisde of the cell. so ther eis a change in charge between the outsde and the inside of the cell leading to an action ptoeintal. the electiralal protientail acorss membrane fromv esm negative resting balue to a psotive value and back. action proteinatl - electrical proeintial movment. from neg to post to neg

there are phases -

resting, rising, overshoot, falling, undershoot. rapid changes in mebrane poritnaitl over milisecond.

sodium is needed for action poteintial intiation. so the rising phase is caused by the volatage gated dosiu chanels opening and allow for sodium to flow in and drive the depolarizaiton. so the falling phase is aused by the inactiation of teh soidum and opening postssium channels to flow out and make the inside more negative causing increase in proiential and hyperpolzation and allow it to undershoot.

so sodium channels open and the membrane poteintial will decrease and then reach towards 60 where the threhold is and then then the channels close and the posttium opens to allow open to allow them to flow out and decrease the potiential to -85. so as the membrane reaches restin the sodium channels will de inactivate again and close the postssium channels will close too byt will be open enough to cuase an undershoot.

once the undershoot happens the sodium postassium ump wil lrestablish the conentration this and the open leak chennel will return the cell to its rsting membrane proetintail .. so for the rising phase then the channel for sodkun will open faster and cause teh rishing and then because the channels for potassium take up more time they will open slower and lead potssiun to leak out last and close slower and causes underhoot too. undershoot appraches eqilibiurm to the potassium. now to go back to resting the posassium sodium pump b alances the ions out.

absolute refactory period each neuron has a max firing rate, even if the stimulus continues to increase in strenth the neuron

okei so actiona patoiential is a change in neurons memprab that allows the nerson to send a singal to its axons, so ap allolws for singals to be reahced , threshold is membran prointiatl that needs to be reached to trigger acion potienital

so the absolute refractory period means that there is period of tiem that after an action ptoteintal strat the neruron cnnot fire anotehr action peoitnaitl no matter how strong or fast the stimulus is. this is becaus duringt he rising phase the na channels open depolarize then the fallign phase the na channels inactive and the k channels open to repolarize. the na channels are closed an can open if sitmulated and inactivated cannot open untile the memrbane repolzies. so basically its based on how fast the na+ channels recover. so another action poteintail cannot occur until the na+ channels retun to the closed by ready state.

for realtive refracotyr period this is where the undershoot area is and basically yes the sodium channels are ready and closed for another AP but because its in the undershoot its further from the threshold therefore needs a stronger signal due to it being hyperpolarized.

so height for all action peotinaitls is the same but if its a strong sitmulus then the ferquency is more than for a weak sitmulsu that causes fewer action poeintial to be fired than a strong sitmulus.

action potentials are unidrectional. action ptoeitnails movees down thea xon due to influce of sodium depoalrizing nearby axon segments to threshold. action peotintails move in one direction from the cell to the presynatpic termal. the refravtory period keeps the aciton peoitnaitl from moving backwards towards the axon. it moves from one node of ranvier o the next, te ianctitvated sodium channels prevent the membrane from depoalrizing agian, so the action peoitnal moves on way.

5 -

the nervous ysstem to funciton neurons must be able to communicate with each other and do this thnrough structures called snapses

at the syn apses the temrianl of a presynaptic comes into close cnntact with the cell of the psottanptic neuron

so snapses is formed when cells of the presynpatic and psot synatpic come into close contact

there is electrical snyapses

so ther eis electircal syanpses that is a direct connection between two neurons, so electrical synapses has direct connections. between the presnypatic neuron and the psot synaptic neuron. bothe of thenm are complete cells of thier own with their onw plasma memrbane own enuron own nucleus own cell.

the cell membran proatins are connexons that form a gap junctions. the gap funcitons form pores that allows ions to flow between neurons , as an action poteintail propatges in the presynmaptic neron the influx of sodiumn can move directly into the post nyaptic and depolarixe the cells, the response of the postnaypti snaptice is almost immedial

since gap juncions allow for diffusion of ions withou obstrution singal can flow bidreciontal through and eldctircal synapses, the elctochem gradients will drive the flow of ions. singal doent alwya smove form pre to post, they can flow either becuase chemical synapse involves the movemnt depend on electrogradients. so eleictric synapses depends on eleicgradient … this also allows for biredctionality through electric synapses and feedback. electric synapse allows forcoodrinate activity it allows for flow of molcules like cellular metbaolices.

so electric synapse uses electrical gradients na will flow in or out and its fast and bidrectional. gap juntion is formed through the connexons. elecic snapses share the cytoplasm between the two connecion cells os ions atp and are able to move throguh

elecial synapses is fast, elecitral snapses is fast. . . . . . . …. ..

so like ions like atp na and larer singaling mocluls and proetisn move between the two cells. the singling moclules play a large role

n

so eeleictral synapse is fast and 4relies on flow of charged

it allows for syncrnos acitvation of mny neurosn…

chemical synapses remember that hcemical gradients are from high to low concnetraitons. hemical synapses is slow and relies on neurotramitter release and allows for vairblity in type of synaptic reponses.

so the singlingmolcule actually has to bind to the receptor for chemical snyapses. its slowl it doesnt rely on the tunnel to connect the two neurons tehre is a distance that is large. a chemical synapse can pass a vaiery of singal depending on the neurotramitter and the recpetors some singals are exitatory and allow postive charged cations to enter the neruon causing depolaring and others are hyperplizing and inhibtory because they can be negative.

at a chemical synapse the depolarizaiton of an action peotinayil reaches the prensyaptic termfinal causes release of the realse of enurotramitters, so ap fires and then nerotramitter are rleased when the depoalrizing happens inisde the presynaptic.

berotrasnmitters are synthized and stored in neurons, after being released these neurotrmaitters difufse ranodmly acoss the snapse the structure and fucnitonof chemical synapse make them slower than elecitral synapse and permit singling in only one direction. because of the compelxity of tehs ignals that chemical synapses can convey evloptionary devleopemtn

soin short action potential causes the presynatpic to release neurotramitters to then go through the synpatic cleft and bind to the receptors of the post snyatpic cell.

calcium is important for the release of the vessicles, na is needed to depoalrize and activate votlage gated calcium channels that come in.

calciums is important for the release of the vessicles,

so the action poteintial has to propagate meaning it will move the axon to the preysnapti ctermail the elctiral singals will result in the release of ehmcial neutoramittesr. so again action ptoeintial propagtin dwn the axon into the preysnpatic terminal will lea do the realse of nchemical neurotramitters.

at a chemical snpase the process of neutroamitters relase is revualted. if there were no mechanise the nerve cells would eplete their entire stock of enutrmiterrs.

so when action poteintail reaches the preysnatic terminal there is n influc of sodium ions. sodium ions inside of the membrane. this inwayrd psotin current cuases a depolariziotn of the reminal activating voltage gatged calcium channels so because there is depoalrization due to a lot of na+ being present then it will cause the calcium chennels to open and therefore these channels are embeeded int o the cell kmembran of hte axon temrianl due to the electrocemical gradient these calcium channels will olpena nd the clium will rush into the cell. calcium is ca2+ sop agoan the presensce of na+ in the terminal causes deplarlziaiton, and it causes the ca2+ chennels to open and therefore will allow ca2+ to flow in.

the voltage gated calcium channels are concentration at the active zone of the membrane whre small molcuel neutrotmaitters are relased, at active zones, some snypatic vesicles are docked and ready for immediat release upon arrival of the action ptoientail. others are in the resver pool outside of the active zone. like neurpetide do not dock at the axtive zones they are in the resve oools futher from he membrane. theyu are slower to release thn eht msolesulc that are small and transmitters.

so the vessicles can be found in the active zone, the resever pool, reglying pool

so again action poteintial happens,l na is in the presynaptic temrinal it causes ca channels top open and allow them to flow in, there are vessicle that are in the active zone and closer to the membrane and these are small moclules there are nuerpeptides that are in the reserve pool further away from the active zone.

there are three steps, when the vessicles meet membranes, there is the snapre complexa

sp the vessciles close to the membrane will dock the membrane and are held by the snare proteins at the presnypatic memrbane .thesnare complex will hold the vessicle ot he membrane, differen ptroein anchor the vessicle to the presnyatpic membrane, calcium fllows in and attaches snyatpocgamin which is a clicum sensory which is on the vessicle and causes conriamtion change and helsp it dock to the cell membrane so the vesicle will merge to the memrbaen and realse tneurotramitters.

sp tje vesicle is held by the snare coplex, ca2_+ comes in and then will attach a snyapota

will attach a snypatotagmin to the snare compelx so the calcium enters and itneracts with a veiscle bound proein called synpatotagmin that is a calcium sesnolry that detects levels of clium, ir formes a complete snare ocmplex,

so then the vessicle can fuse into the cell memrbane and realse its neurotramitters across thea quous snapse.

so again the vessicle will bind to the snare compelx, then ca comes in and it will bind to a snypatotagmin to bind to the vesicle and the snarer and then it will cuse a confroimation change and allow the vesicle to bind to the memrbane/fuse and relase its neurotramittes , the veisscles in the acive zone.

remember that glutamtae is excitatory because it makes the post synaptic postiive. GLUtamtamate is Postivie excitatory

GLutmatmate is excitatory

Glu is sticky and sticky means ur wet and exctied

gaba and gly gaba gand gly are shy and inhibtory they are negative.

Glue is sticky ecitedtatorynad postiive cuz sex is potiive and good

gaba and gly is inhibitory in adults

Gaba and gly gabab gly gaba gly gabab gly is inhibitory in adults

gabab and gly are adults and they are inhibtory

gaba and gly are inhibitory in adults

acetyk cholin is exitatory

and norepineprhtin is both fligh or figh

in central and peripheral nervous system - mainly excitatory

acetyl choline

is in the central and peripheral nervous system

noreperinpherin si both

acetyl choline is in the central and peripheral nervous system.

subtatnce p is for pain.

acetylcholin is exictoatyr and so is glumatate

and gaba and gly is inhibotry

and nore perinpehrin is for both

and aceytlchol is in the central and peripharl nervous system

and subtance p is for pain tranmission

subtaopin p is for pain tramission

so neurotranmitters are released at the prsynatpic membrane and interact with eceptosr onthe postynapic memrbane. neurotramitters are actively taken up by tranpotters and broekn down by enzymes once they bind to the recptor and are relased, tranparoters reuptake them . and are broken down

inactivation heppens neutroamitters are taken back upby tranporters or broken down by enzymjes. reptuake/inactivation ranporters tka ehtjm or enzymes brek thme down like aceyl cholin is broken down as cholline anc acetic acid.

again so the na comes in opens ca and ca binds to the snyaptogatin veccisles in snare and then vessicles release, there is exitatory gluamtate and acetyl choline inhibotyr gaba and gly and epine which is both and these bind to the receptors of the psot synatpic cell and then they release and inactivation happens where tranporters either take them or enzymes break them down like acetyl cholin into cholin and acetic acid.

axons nd dendrites connect.

they can either be axodendit which is the most common, axosommatic, and axon axon.

so axon dendrite, axon soma, and axon axon.

remeber elcitral they are touching, and chemical is that there is space.

if there is ttx then there is no na and therefore will not fire. remmeber tha tthe syn patogamin is the ca2+ sensory and when depolarization happens.

one wa it sto activate ion channels by bidni got them this us how neutramiterrs provide a sitmulsu to the pstynatpic memrbane. so the neurtomaitters bind and activate the ion channels bounded to the memrbane, ligan gated ion chyannels 

one type of postnyaoic receptor is ionotrpopic the ligan or the neutramitters binds and opesn the channel in the psotysnpatic.

so an excitatory neutramitter like glumatmate or acetyl cholin can bind to the receptor of the post synaptic neuron and then t iwll oepn the channels and allow for na to flow in

epsp is exitoatyr post synaptic poeintial.

influc of sodiun in the postynatpic is exitatory. EPSP causes depolarization. epsp caues a cell to depoilarize by having he ligan open the channels can cuase na to flow in this is ecitaotry
postynatpic poteintial is briend with ion chnensl closing quickly.l so ionotropic involes ligan bindin to recepto rna dopening for ions to pass through .. epsp one type in causes ligan binds to ecitaotry neuronmitters and allows fo rna to flow in and exites

chloride is for hyperolization so they will flow in with IPSP. gaba b inding can causze chloride to enter.

so na is for exitatory and cl is for inhibtory

like gaba and gly bind to let cl go in and be inhibtory.

postnyatpic poentiatl summate atht eh axon hillox, if the memrban potneital goes over threshold it will generate a action poeintiatl in the psoynatic and go ro the preynspatic terminal when a neurtmraitter

sumation can happen in two ways, temproal summation occurs when one prenyaptic input simualtes a postynpatic neuron multple times in a row and pstial simaiton is multiple presnyatpic inputs eahc sitmualte the psotnyatpic neryon at at the same time.

tmeporal summation is when when pre synatiales the psot at mutliples times in a row

spatial usmmation is when mutleiple dif pre sitmiulates thepost at the same time . both result in a hiher madintute of depolarization then a signle exitatory inptu.

again tempral is one mutliple times ina. row

and sptaial is multiple to one at the same itme

they cause a higher magintiude of depolarizaiton than epsp by itsself

epsps and ips summation will lead to a no dpeolarization or a weak depoalrzation .

combined hibnitor

both chloride and sodiu channels will opewn as sodium entiers the cell trying to m

epsp and ipsp will lead to both chloride and sodium chennsl openin gna dtitll go up and down up and down and enerate either no depoalizaiton or a weka one.

ionotropic is igan binding and opening channel, metabotirc is g coupedl preotin receptors.

g rptoein are found in many sysmtens and ocntirbute to intracellular singlaing cascahed.

there is elecitrcal snayp;ses that involves junctions - these juncions connects directly between neuron cells, they will allow for fast tranmsissions, and fro na to low in biredctionally, responsebeedback and follow the elcitrcal gtraident. they allow for large mocluesl like atp and na

then there is chemical which is slower and has more space betweeen tbe. eurosn it alows for a diverse types of singals. it involes neuotramitters and vesicles. so the axaon will take the action poeintial into the presynatpic cell terminal where na will flow in and this will cause ca 2+ channels to open. the vesicles in the active zone will be near the membrane and be small molcules and those in the reserve pool are larger. the vessicles will dock the snare complex, then the ca2+ will flow in and take a ca2+n sensor called snarostotgin that will bind to the vesssicle and the snare complex and cause the vessicle to emb edd into the membrane to release the neurotransmitters,

the enurostrmaitres can be peptides, amine, amino acids

glutmatme and acetyl choline are exitoatory, and gly gaba are inhibotry, epinpeherin ei sb oth , acetyl choline is exitatory

gly and gaba inhibtory in adults

epineprhins is for flight or fight

subtance p is for pain tramission.

an ionotropic receptor is when a ligan binds like exitatory glumamte and then allows for na+ to flow in and cause the psot rysnaptic a action peotinaitl and depolarizaiton. or if its inhibotry a gaba binds and then causes cl- to flow in. in metaboptropic it is. g protiens that have an intracellular singling cascade go off. then there is inactivation where the tranporters take the neutromiterrs back or enzymes will come in and breakthem down

there is epsps where itself has to get to thresholdm

there is temporal summation where one readed singling is going to he psot synaptic cell multiple times in a row and gets a stronger depolarizaiton. and then there is a spaital summation where multipel singals are reaching the psotunatpic at the ame time also giving us a stronger depolarizaiton. if epsis and ipsis hapens at the same time then there is a weaker depolariziaztion or not even anything happening.

oh there is neruosn synatpse axon dendrite

axon soma and axon axon .if there is space between it is chem ical

6 -

\one major type of nervou system cell si called glai -

glia cells is lating for glue, they were overlooked for a long time and thought for supper or filler .

myelination cell type of the central nervous sytem

the meuletination cel type of the centralnervous sytem is olgiodendocytes.

okie so glia cells are supprting cells. so olgiodentdrocytes are in the central nevous system and they do the myelination. they have branches that leads their ability to mylenate and they reach out to ther neurosn and meylaint their axons. myleantion on aciton peoitniat propjagations, spaces between the meylerin ghtere asre sodium and improves velocity of the acion ptoeintial because it jumpst beteen notdes .

so basically the effect o fmyeling on aciton poteintal propeatation myling will allow the action peointial to skip the muling and go between the nodes of ranvier that have the sodium channels, it is a saltory condution(saltoatory porque salta). the winder the axon the better the progaation and faster . oh i forhot that myling also leads to reduciton of loss ofions, and there ismore space in the acon because it leads to better flow. myelind modidfes capble proptes of aaxon to promtoe spead of curendown acons,

so mtlin is the insulator to prevent loss of ions nd it is also skiiping area saltoroty condution.

glia cells - olgiodendrotyes they oogli have nyelinating abilites - the yhave branches to mulation the acxons of neurons. atrovytes are also glia cells of the central nervous sytem . myleination increase the membrane resistnacne, and decrease membrane capaciy. it increase the restance across the flow there armo more abaible chargees to g o dowthe memrbane

astrcytes in the CNS are for injury, they ae importnat for neutramitter cleanrse at snapse at netricn chemical achange oat eh bllod barrier. BBB

Astrocytes at athe CNS are important for neutromitter cleanrance and nutricents chemical exchange at the BBB.

olgiodendrotyes at the CNS and the astrocytes that are imprtnat for neutramitter clearnace and nutrient/exchange of chemicals at the BBB blood brain barrier ., between bllood and brain. astrocytes communiate with blood supply.

link ebetweek metabnolism and metabolites takes up glamates and give it ack t pen ierps.

there are radial astrocytes - tanycytes

radial astrocytes - tancytes have roles in neutrient sesnting , appteiaint in the h ypothalamus connected to tehe BB.

astrocytes in the CNS - neutontramitter clearnac,e. eexchange of chemcial and nturients at the BBB barrier between blood and brain

radial astrocytes - tantycvytes - are for sensing nutrients, apteiitn in the hypothalamuc connected ot hte BBB

trantycyets - radial astrocytes - are for nutrient sensing, aptietin in hte hypothalams in the BBB

microglia are immunce cells of the central nerviusys system. = hot topic in current neursoncei - mciroglia are for immunce cells of the CNS

ioglio - mulation

astrocytes - clening up and echange of nutrients and chemikca at the BB
tantycytes - radial astrocytes - nutrients sensing , appeiin in hypothalamus in the BBB

micrfoglia is for the CNS immune cells. - HOTTEST TOPIC MICROGLIA - immune survalence and injursy response. immune survalence and injury response

mciroglia are for immune repisne and injruy in the cns .

astrocyte are for clean up of neutramiteters and echange of nutrtienst and chemical isn the BB

opgios they oogle mylation

astrocytes

microlgio - think of microbacteira and they are for immune and injruy reponse

astrocytes are for the fucking clean up and nutrients

radial astorcytes/tancytyes are for neutrne sensoring, hipotlahtmu atppeti in the bBB

microglia play a role in enurodiernative diesases.

ependymall cells - are impoartnt for citualtion of the cerebrospinal fluid in the CNS> the cs is importan for wast removal, mainaing pressure, and clel signaling.

ependymall cells - Cerebral brain fluid curciulator , the CBF is for waste removal , internal pressure, and cell singling. ot flows through the entire CNS. teh brain spine back, form boundaires between the NS and the CSF there is difussion

,oicroglika is for synpatic plasicity - immunity, in jury repsonse, neuron growht and developemtn, again role in snyapt;oc placicity, neuron growht and devleopment ,immune surivalen, microglia for snyapitc plasicity, imminity, injuyrt, grotwh and devlepmetn, again mciroglia is for growth developmetn, injury immunity, and synpatic plascitiyc. again microglia is for grwoth developmet imjury immuity, growth and developoment. again micorglia is for injury immunity, grwoth devlepemtn , synpatic plasiticity, astrocytes is for clean yp and nutrient anc chemical echange in the BBB, adial astorcytes -tancytes are for nutreint sysnesing, hnypothalau nutrient exhan in the BBBV hen we got olgio which are for mjyation, microglia is for growth and development,immunity, injury, plasiticyt in snapses.

OAME

OAME

NAME

OAMAE

instead of NAME OAMAE

then we got hte ependymal cells - impaortn for cirualtion of the cerboprospinal fluid CSF

cerbral spinal fldui

ependymal cells - improtant for cirulation of the cerpab spinal fluid

ependymal cells - think of eppendorf tubes that hold liuiq dhwat liquid is it hte cerbral spinal fluid loll

ependymal cells - circulate the cerbral spinal fluid . ependymalependofri tubes - ependymal cells - ependymal cells - CSF

CSF s important for waste remvoal , amintin interal mpressure, cell singling.

the cerebral spinal fluid is for wastre removal, pressure, and cells ingling, again waste removal, pressure, and singling, waste removal, pressure, and singling that is why sleep is important bceduase the waste removal happens duing sleep,

astrocytes like stars they main the blood brain baririer - they are for neutron lelarnace and exhanve of

mirgolia for cns tramitic blow to head they come for injyr ad immune reponse.

ependynal cells. CSF - for waster removela cell singling and for pressure . they are like columar with extensionc called cilia and into the central cana that runs dwnt eh sinside of the spinal. they have cilia.

they for the BBB parasites can contra

hen we got pericytes - compenent of the BBB

and ednothelia cells tha mek up blood vessels.

endothelical cells make up blood vessles and pericytes - compeontn of the BB

endothieal make up blood vessles and pericytes - component of the BBB

pericytes - cppoment of the BB

endothail make up the blood vessels.

pericytes ponoent of the BBB

endothail cell smakeup blood vesicles

BB

emember that astrocytes conncet to the blood vesslce,endpthial clels, and that perictyles that are a compeonto f the BB ednothatil cells make up the blood vesslces, internerosn connect he vesscle to the neurons itself.

ependymal cells are fo rthe cSF

endotheila are blood vessles and percytes are for componeo of the BBB

CNS

Olgiocytes-

astroocytes

radial astrocyte tantyctes

microglia

ependymal

pericytes

endethual cells

then there are glai cell types in teh PERipehral nervos system

there are schwann cells that are the MAJOR in the PNS

schwan cells provide support to axon as well as the meytlin sheet, not all whan cells are mlianted,

okie schwan cellsuprto the axon and mylein sheats, they will only mylate on axon but olgiodendrotes will mylatem manu

ther eis mulating and non mylated schwan cells.

schwan cells interac with axon but dont mualtie them all jstu support, mylatin gives more support non muatlino doesnt vie fast action ptoiential

PNS cns tranzaiton zones - some nruons are exposed to glai from botht ePNS and the CNS. neruons that have xons in bothe the NC Sna dPSN are the motor and sensory neurosn. Motor and sensory neurons ar eboth in the PNS and CNS.

nucnles of axon and glia lcells in the PNS are called NErves

CNS - motor and PNS is sensory

bucnle of axon and glial cells ain the PNS are clled nerves, nerves are tissues and tissues need blood suppl, PNs has interaction with blood supply and neurons, axons fo throug and itneract iwth schwan cells

nervs are part of the PNS, they are tissues that need blood suuply, So like nervs

macrophages are immune cells like microlia in the CNS

so macrophave - micrglia

Pns vs CNS

then there

schwan cells vs olgiodendrocytes

PNS vs CNS

mesenchymal cells and blood vessels have a role in nerve generation folowig injur . NESenchymal cells and blood vessles have a role in nerve geeration following eneryg. MESNVHYmAL CELLS - nerve generaiton
MESENCHYML ACELLS - nerve generation

Glia are cells that are supporting in the CNS and PNS. the are not neurons they are just supporters of neurons…

what is the mjajro ype of nervoys system cell? glia

PNS is schwan cells

Olgiodendrryoctyyes do the myleinationg of multiple neurosn. they have multiple branches to attach to the axons . mylinations speeds up the propagation, myling insulates, increases resistance, it is known as the satatloty condutions because the ap jumps between nodes of raviers, the nodes have channels btween them. oh also myling prevents the loss of charges. the larger the axon the better the flow.

astroctyes are the ones that clean up neurotramitters and they exchange nutrients and chemicals from the BBB.

Astroyctes are importnat for neutramsitter clearnace at snypases at THE. BBBB

so olgio dendrothes directly attach to the axon

olgiodendryotes directly to axon of the neuron with its multiple branches

then there are astrocytes that attach directly to the blood vessle,and those artoyctes bind to the dendrites of the neuron. astrocytes are for importnat neutoranjmtitter cenarse at snyamjpses ad nutrient/chemical chage at teh BBB. so the atroycte is attached to the blood vessel.

Then there are readial astrocytes - tantyctes that are directly attached but they sense nutriens, hunger in the hyphtalamus, the BBB

microglia - import5ant for injruty = immune reponse - neural growth and development, plasticity. they just chilln.

microglia - neural growth, synapse plasiticty, imunity, injury. again micogliio injury, immunity, plasticity, neural rowth, plasticity.

ependymal - circulates the CSF - the CSF is important for the pressure, cell singling, and waste clearnace

then there are pericytes - part fo the BBB

endothial cells - make up the bloodv essel structure.

pericytes - make up bbb componeont

endoteial cells - make up the BBB

one type of PNS cell is the SChwan cells.

Schwan cells are like olgiodendryotes except these schwan cells are the ones that support the axon and mylin sheath, they ae the ones that will only mylinate on axon. not all schwan cells myelinate. scwahn cells provide structure to the axon and muling sheat the mylinate onlyn one axon segment. not all schwan cells mylinate.

myelinating or non myelinating

so schwan cells are the ones that provide support to the axons or myeling seath , some mylateint but others dont, those that mylate will mylatin on axon . unile olgiodendrytoes that mylatied mutliple, thne there is non mylating that just wraps aound the axon and providessupport to multple axons. there are terminal schwna cells that are found aht teh neuromscular junctions. termianl shwan cells found a tht emoto and muscle fibers

okie important, we got the PNS CNS traniastion some - some nerusonare exposed to glia from both the PNS and the CNS. like motor ans sensory neyrons. okie some neyrons like motor and sesnory are exposed to glia from both the PNS and CNS> so lets tka e a motor neyron - motor neurons axons are attached to muscles, so they will have schwan cells attached to the axon closes to the axon and olodtiodroc tes closes to the dendrite head

remember that the schwan cells are closer to axons or the area that is attaching the skin ormuscle, schwan cells are attached to the skino r muscle cells, schwan schwan cells skin swchan cells skin .if its attached closer to the acon terminal then it is i motor neuron, if its attached closed to the dendritvet heads it is a sensory,

nulces of aaxons and glia are called neurons. nerves are tissues that suuply

so buncles of axons and glia are called nerves, these are tissues that need blood suuply. so they will have blood suuply too,,… there are pericytes and endothyila cells also here at the BBB

There is a blood nerve barrier at the CNS , these also have endothial cells and perictyes.

So nerves are bundles of axons and glia. they need blood and form the Blood nreve barrier that also have pericytes and endotheilial cells. nerves have macrophaes n- they are for immunity in the PNS and are like micrgolia in the CNS

okie so merves are bundles of axons and glia, they nare tisseus that need blood supplhy, so thy will have those blood vessels, htye are made up of pericytes and endothial cells, then there are also macrophages in the nerves. they are for immunity

macrophages are for immuniy in th PNS similar ot microglia

macrorphage are for immunity in nerves similar to microglia

then there is fibroblast that have a role in nerve generation.

mesenchymal mesenechymal sounds like ependynal. mesen chemyla are fibroblas that are needed for nerve regernationa ftera injruy.

nuc les fc axons and glia are called nerv es they need blood uspply the blood vessels have enodthial and pericytes, tey also have macropages that are used for immunit like microglia. then there are meschemyl something firboblast that regneratees the fucking nerves

remember that there is electircal synapses - they use gap juntions this is fast and quick and cause deopoalrization using na+ l they also depend onthe gradient of electrical. they also allow to flow in atp. then there is chemical syanpses that is slow, provides more viartyet for the snpases types, they use enruotramitters. action potiantiel is generated at the axon hilloc.

they use vessicles so when the action pointietal is goikngto the preterminal it will flow in na+ the vessicles in the axtive znoe closer to the membrane(those further are the reserved pook) they will bind to the membrane and then attach with the snare compelx and then na will open the ca2+ channels where it will flow in and bind to the spynomatgin and then will cause the vessicle to fuse, and release ist neutroamitters.

then thereare are types of neutroamitters, there is

acetyl cholin and gluantate that is excitatory

gaba gly that is inhibotyr

epen - both

gaba gly ihibitoy in adutsl

anywho so thes neurtamitters will dbin o the receptors either ionotropic which is ligan receptor neutramitter binds and either willbe epsp and ipsps where the ligan will oen the channel and either epeps flolw in na+ or the ipsp will flow in cl- to hyperpolarize. then wheni ts done it is inactivation where it is going transporter carry back or enzymes break down. ohni. forhot abotu substance p that is needed for pain tramsitssion. 4emeber that aetyl cholin ins mainly exitatory but inthe CNS and PSN.

acetyl cholini s in both PNS and CNS. acetyl choline is in the PNS and CNS.

oh there is summations ofmultiple singal temporal is the same input multiple times in a row stronger depoalrization, then there is spatialsummation multiple imputs same time. faster. spatial summation is faster .then there is ipsps and epepsp whichi s weak depoarlizaiton. metabotripci will start singaling scade intracellularly.

60

-85

-65

remmeber that ttx will be the one that affects the rising potiential

tea will affect the falling but no the aion potiential

rising is fast

action poitnieatl in tiation is imaportna soidum channels are importna

the need for the spdoum channel

ttx sodiums

and tea is for posassium

TTX sodium

tea is for potassium

rememgber that ttx will affect the rsisng phase not ht efalling

and tea affects the falling phase

what is the effect of loss of ependymal cells - loss of csf

highest permability of ions is the one with the msot oen channels regardless of how wide or small.

in the BBB there are pericytes

endothial cells

similar to the BB is h blood nerve barrier also has these twos and h s macorpahges.

nerrves are bundles of axon and glia

the glia for the PNS is the schwan cells

the PNS and CNS

neurons sesnory and ootor are in bothe the PNS and the CNS

they have glia like olgiodendrypteis and schwancells

if the axons are touching the skina nd the schwan cells arre attahced ot that edn then it i s a motor cell.

endymal cells - CSF - pressure, cellular signling, clearnce of waste

Microglia - there is immune repsone, injury, equivalne to thePNS macrogphagem also for neural growth and development, and…..plasticity for snapses.

astrocytes - in the

atrocyrtes BBB to neuron, neuron ineernueon,

elecitral snases- gao jcuntion slow

chemical snapses slowe rsnare na depoalrizes ca comes in takes the snaytpogtagin

spatial summation is faster in depoliarion

dont forget that bidirecitonal -is frm electircal snpases not chemicalc zu it cant come bac

goldman is for calculating the membrane protientia, goldmani s forthe membran r ptoitnatl and ners t is fof he ion euqilirb ium ptoeitiatl