Unit 5: Period 5: 1844–1877 (copy)

5.1 Political and Judicial activity before the war

1844 U.S. Election

Candidates: James Polk (Democrat) vs. Henry Clay (Whig)

Party Platforms

Whigs:

Internal Improvements

Bridges

Harbors

Canals

Vision: Civilized lands with bustling towns and factories (e.g. New England)

Democrats:

Expansionists

Borders pushed outward

Private ownership of newly added land (e.g. isolated plantations in the South)

No government involvement in newly added land

Election Results

Close election

Polk wins

The Polk Presidency

Goals

Restore government funds in Treasury (vs. pet banks under Jackson)

Reduce tariffs

Accomplished by end of 1846

Texas and Oregon

Proposed annexation by President Tyler (last days of administration)

Northern congressmen alarmed (potential 5 slave states below Missouri Compromise line)

Demanded annexation of entire Oregon Country

"54°40´ or Fight" demands, but Polk recognizes possibility of two territorial wars

Conceded on demands for expansion into Canada

Negotiated reasonable American-Canadian border

Oregon Treaty signed with Great Britain in 1846

Acquired peaceful ownership of Oregon, Washington, and parts of Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana

Established current northern border of the region

Mexican-American War

Efforts to claim Southwest from Mexico (failed attempt to buy territory)

Challenged Mexican authorities on Texas border

Mexican attack on American troops

Used border attack to argue for declaration of war

Declared war by Congress in 1846

Whigs (e.g. Abraham Lincoln) questioned Polk's claim of Mexican first fire

War began in 1846

Mexican-American War & Public Opinion

Northerners: feared new states in West would be slave states, thus tipping balance in favor of proslavery forces

Opponents: believed war was provoked by slaveholders, resulting in slave owners having control over government

Referenced as "Slave Power" by suspicious Northerners

Gag rule in 1836 raised suspicions of Slave Power

Wilmot Proviso: Congressional bill to prohibit extension of slavery in territories gained from Mexico

House vote fell along sectional lines: Northern in favor, Southern opposed

Result in Free-Soil Party: regional, single-issue party opposed to slavery expansion (competition with slave labor)

Mexican War: successful for American forces, resulted in Mexican Cession (Southwest land) for $15 million

Gadsden Purchase ($10 million): southern regions of modern Arizona and New Mexico for transcontinental railroad

Slavery Expansion & Debates

Addition of new territory increased nation's potential wealth, but posed problems regarding slavery status

East of Mississippi: evenly divided between lands suited for plantation agriculture (slavery) and those not

West of Mississippi: not suitable for traditional plantation crops

Southerners: saw future where slavery was confined to southeast quarter and outvoted by free-soil advocates

Tried to open up more areas to slavery through popular sovereignty

Territories decide by vote whether to allow slavery within borders.

5.2 The Compromise of 1850

Background

Sectional strife over new territories started as the ink was drying on the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

During the Gold Rush, settlers had flooded into California and it wanted statehood with a constitution prohibiting slavery, opposed by South

Debate grew hostile leading to discussion of secession among southern legislators

Major Players

Henry Clay, Whig Senator from Kentucky

Drafted and proposed the Compromise of 1850

Clarified the final boundaries of Texas

Proposed banning slavery in the entire Mexican Cession and wanted stringent Fugitive Slave Act

John Calhoun, Democrat Senator from South Carolina

Defender of slavery and opposed the Compromise

Advocate for states’ rights and secession, popular sovereignty for Mexican Cession territories

Daniel Webster, Whig Senator from Massachusetts

Supported the Compromise to preserve the Union and avert Civil War

Characterized himself "as an American" in the Seventh of March speech

Risked offending abolitionist voter base by accepting the Compromise

Stephen Douglas, Democrat

Worked with Henry Clay to hammer out a workable solution, the Compromise of 1850

The Compromise of 1850

Defeated in Congress when presented as a complete package

Douglas broke the package into separate bills and managed to get majority support for each

Admitted California as a free state and stronger fugitive slave law enacted

Created the territories of Utah and New Mexico, left status of slavery up to each territory to decide

==Abolished slave trade, not slavery itself, in Washington, D.C==.

Issues with the Compromise

Definition of popular sovereignty was vague and different interpretations by Northerners and Southerners

Fugitive slave law made it easier to retrieve escaped enslaved people, but required cooperation from citizens of free states and seen as immoral

Increase in Antislavery Sentiments

Publication of Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852

Sentimental novel depicting plantation life based on information from abolitionist friends

Sold over a million copies and adapted into popular plays that toured America and Europe

Powerful piece of propaganda awakening antislavery sentiment in millions who had never thought about the issue before

The Kansas-Nebraska Act and “Bleeding Kansas”

The Kansas-Nebraska Act was enacted in 1854 to establish civil authority and secure land in the Kansas and Nebraska territories, where no civil authority existed.

The act was promoted by Illinois Senator Stephen Douglas to bring money and jobs to his home state through the termination of the transcontinental railway in Illinois.

The act was passed despite objections from antislavery Whigs and Democrats, leading to the weakening of the Fugitive Slave Act through personal liberty laws in northern states.

The act drove the final stake into the heart of the Whig Party and led to the formation of the Republican Party, which aimed to keep slavery out of the territories and appeal to a wider constituency through a range of issues.

The American party (also known as the Know-Nothings) was formed around the issue of nativism, but the party self-destructed over disagreement about slavery.

The Kansas-Nebraska Act led to violence in the territories, as abolitionists and proslavery groups rushed in and both antislavery and proslavery constitutions were sent to Washington.

Kansas became known as "Bleeding Kansas" or "Bloody Kansas" due to the conflict between the two sides, which resulted in the deaths of over 200 people.

The events in Kansas further polarized the nation, leading to the election of James Buchanan as the 1856 Democratic candidate. Buchanan won the election, carrying the South, while the Republicans carried the North.

Buchanan, Dred Scott, and the Election of 1860

James Buchanan was US president from 1857-1861 and worked to maintain the status quo by enforcing the Fugitive Slave Act and opposing abolitionist activism.

Dred Scott v. Sandford was a case heard by the Supreme Court two days after Buchanan took office, where Scott, a former slave, sued for his freedom. The Court ruled that enslaved people were property, not citizens, and that Congress couldn't regulate slavery in the territories.

The Dred Scott decision was a major victory for Southerners and a turning point in the decade of crisis, it was vehemently denounced in the North as further proof of a Slave Power.

The 1858 Illinois Senate race between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas was nationally watched, with Lincoln delivering his "House Divided" speech and Douglas damaging his political career with his ambiguous stance on popular sovereignty.

John Brown’s raid on Harper's Ferry in 1859 and his subsequent execution sparked northern abolitionist support.

The 1860 Democratic convention split between Northern Democrats supporting Douglas and Southerners supporting Breckinridge.

The election of 1860 showed the nation was on the brink of fracture, with Lincoln and Douglas contesting the North, and Breckinridge representing the South.

5.3 The Civil War and Reconstruction (1860-1877)

Civil War Era

Background

Slavery was the central issue, but not the only or explicitly stated reason for the Civil War

Four Border States (Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware) were slave states that fought for the Union

Northerners fought to preserve the Union, while Southerners fought for states’ rights

Lincoln's views on slavery evolved

As late as 1862, Lincoln's primary goal was to save the Union, not necessarily abolish slavery

Battles

Battle of Antietam

First battle fought in the East where the Union wasn't completely defeated

Union claimed victory and showed Britain and France that they weren't a lost cause

Gave Lincoln platform to announce the Emancipation Proclamation

Battle of Gettysburg

Most northern point the Confederacy had reached at the time

Lee's troops suffered massive casualties and were forced to retreat

Boosted confidence for the Union

Gettysburg Address

Delivered four months after Battle of Gettysburg

Redefined the War as a struggle for human equality, not just preservation of Union

Influence of Political, Economic, and Social Factors

The Civil War impacted not only the battlefields, but also the political, economic, and social realms

Political and diplomatic consequences of battles like Antietam and Gettysburg

Political, social, and economic conditions influenced the outcome of the war

The Civil War and the Confederacy

Central Control Under the Confederacy

Confederate government brought southern states under greater central control

Jefferson Davis took control of southern economy and imposed taxes

Davis took control of transportation and created large bureaucracy to oversee economic developments

Declared martial law and suspended habeas corpus to maintain control

Lincoln was using similar steps in the North, causing chafing in the Confederacy

Economic Modernization and Challenges

Davis tried to modernize the southern economy, but lagged behind in industrialization

Rapid economic growth led to rapid inflation, causing poverty in the South

Confederacy imposed conscription, causing further poverty and class conflict

Wealthy were allowed to hire surrogates and were exempt from military service, causing increased tensions

Towards the End of the War

Class tensions led to widespread desertions from the Confederate Army

Southerners in small towns ignored the government and tried to carry on as if there was no war

Many resisted when asked to support passing troops

The Civil War and the Union

I. Economic Impacts

A. Northern economy

Boosted by demand for war-related goods (uniforms, weapons)

Loss of southern markets initially harmed economy

War economy brought boom period

Entrepreneurs became wealthy, some through war profiteering

Corruption widespread, prompted congressional investigation

B. Southern economy

Accelerated inflation rate (over 300%)

II. Workers and Unions

A. Workers concerned about job security, formed unions

B. Businesses opposed unions, blacklisted members, broke strikes

C. Republican Party supported business, opposed to regulation

III. Government Powers

A. Increase in central government power

B. Lincoln's actions

Economic development programs without congressional approval

Government loans and grants to businesses, raised tariffs

Suspended writ of habeas corpus in border states

Printed national currency

C. Treasury Secretary: Salmon P. Chase

Issued greenbacks, precursor to modern currency

Salmon P. Chase

Initially, neither the Union nor the Confederacy declared the Civil War to be about slavery

The Constitution protected slavery where it already existed, so many opponents were against extending slavery into new territories

Lincoln argued for gradual emancipation, compensation to slaveholders, and colonization of freed enslaved people

Radical Republicans in Congress wanted immediate emancipation and introduced confiscation acts in 1861 and 1862

The second confiscation act allowed the government to liberate all enslaved people, but Lincoln refused to enforce it

Lincoln's idea of gradual emancipation was based on a law in Pennsylvania passed in 1780

Enslaved people supported the Southern war effort by growing crops and cooking meals, leading to their liberation becoming a side effect of Union victory

Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation in September 1862 after the Union victory at Antietam

==The Emancipation Proclamation stated that the government would liberate all slaves in states "in rebellion" on January 1, 1863==

It did not free slaves in border states or those already under Union control, and allowed Southern states to rejoin the Union without giving up slavery

The Proclamation declared the Civil War as a war against slavery and changed its purpose

Lincoln supported complete emancipation and the Thirteenth Amendment before his reelection campaign

After his reelection, he tried to negotiate a settlement with Southern leaders for reentry into the Union and voting on the Thirteenth Amendment.

The Election of 1864 and the End of the Civil War

General Opinion

North and South both favored end of the war

George McClellan lost due to opposing majority of Democrats

Southern Population

Less than 1% owned over 100 enslaved people

Non-slaveholding farmers resented Confederacy and war

Northern Opinion

War Democrats: war necessary to preserve Union

Copperheads: accused Lincoln of national social revolution

Most violent opposition in New York City

Draft riots in 1863

Irish immigrants resentful of being drafted

Feared competition with former slaves for low-paying jobs

War Progress

Summer 1864 victories helped Lincoln's reelection

Union victory virtually assured by early spring 1865

Established Freedman's Bureau for newly liberated Black people

First federal, social welfare program in U.S. history

End of War

Confederate leaders surrendered in April 1865

John Wilkes Booth assassinated Lincoln five days later

Devastating consequences for reunited nation

War Cost

Over 3 million men fought

Over 500,000 died

As many seriously wounded

Both governments ran up huge debts

South ravaged by Union soldiers

Sherman's March from Atlanta to sea in 1864

Union Army burned everything in its wake

Foreshadowed wide-scale warfare of 20th century

Political Impact

War permanently expanded role of government

Government grew rapidly to manage economy and war

Reconstruction

Reconstruction refers to the period of 1865-1877 and the process of readmitting southern states, rebuilding physical damage, and integrating newly freed Blacks into society

Lincoln's Ten-Percent Plan was a plan to allow southern states back into the Union after 10% of voters took an oath of allegiance and accepted the Thirteenth Amendment, but was seen as too lenient by Republicans

The Wade-Davis Bill provided for military rule in former Confederate states and required 50% of the electorate to swear an oath of allegiance, but was pocket vetoed by Lincoln and later died

Lincoln's and the Wade-Davis Bill did not make provisions for Black suffrage

With Lincoln's assassination, Andrew Johnson assumed the presidency and developed the Reconstruction Plan which required a loyalty oath but barred many former Confederate elite from taking it

Johnson's Reconstruction Plan was met with resistance from Congress, leading to his impeachment trial

Johnson's impeachment trial, the first of a U.S. President, was a result of political conflicts between Johnson and the Radical Republicans over Reconstruction policies.

The Failure of Reconstruction

General Overview:

Reconstruction had successes and failures

New state constitutions allowed all men to vote, elected government positions, public schools, and industrial development

Failure was due to high tax rates, propaganda war, corruption, and political scandals

Successes:

All southern men could vote

Elected government positions replaced appointed positions

Public schools and social institutions created

Industrial and rail development stimulated

Black people serving in southern governments

Failures:

High tax rates and public opposition

Propaganda war against Reconstruction

Corruption of Northerners and Southerners

Political scandals during Grant's administration

Political Scandals during Grant's Administration:

Black Friday, 1869

Credit Mobilier scandal, 1872

New York Custom House ring, 1872

Star Route frauds, 1872-1876

Sanborn incident, 1874

Pratt & Boyd scandal, 1875

Whiskey Ring, 1875

Delano affair, 1875

Trading post scandal, 1876

Alexander Cattell & Co. scandal, 1876

Safe burglary, 1876

Diverted public's attention from postwar conditions in the South

Civil War officially ended but a war of intimidation began by insurgent groups (Ku Klux Klan, White League)

Attorney General Amos Akerman declared the actions of these groups amount to war

Federal troops were sent in to oppose the Klan under the Enforcement Acts

Reconstruction did little to alter the South's power structure or redistribute wealth to freedmen

Federal government signaled early on it would ease up restrictions and President Grant enforced the law loosely

Supreme Court restricted the scope of the 14th and 15th Amendments, allowing for voting restrictions for Black people

President Grant's administration was corrupt and tarnished Reconstruction

1872 election, Liberal Republicans abandoned coalition supporting Reconstruction due to corruption

Grant moved closer to conciliation and several acts pardoned rebels

Southern Democrats regained control by 1876 and called themselves Redeemers, intending to reverse Republican policies

1876 election was contested, Samuel J. Tilden won popular vote but needed electoral vote

Compromise of 1877 was reached to resolve the election, Hayes won and ended military reconstruction, federal troops pulled out of Southern states

Military reconstruction ended, life for Black people became worse and took nearly 100 years for the federal government to fulfill the ideal of equality expressed in the Declaration of Independence.

Southern Blacks During and After Reconstruction

End of the Civil War

Ambiguous state of freedom

Most stayed on plantations as sharecroppers

Some searched for separated family members

Freedman’s Bureau assistance

Jobs and housing

Money and food for those in need

Schools established, including Fisk University and Howard University

Terribly underfunded with little impact once military reconstruction ended

Lack of Redistributed Land

Freedman’s Bureau attempted to establish labor contracting system

Failed, Blacks preferred sharecropping

Traded portion of crop for right to work someone else’s land

System worked at first, but landowners eventually abused it

Widespread at end of Reconstruction

No court would fairly try cases of sharecroppers vs. landowners

Sharecropping existed until mid-20th century, included more whites than Blacks

Progressive States

Mississippi had large Black population and was most progressive

Hiram Revels and Blanche K. Bruce became first Black senators in 1870 and 1875

Robert Smalls founded Republican Party of South Carolina and served in U.S. House of Representatives in the 1880s

Key Vocabulary

Freedman’s Bureau

Sharecropping

Hiram Revels

Blanche K. Bruce

Robert Smalls