5.0: unit five review - agricultural land use

Overall Unit Key Themes

  1. Introduction to Agriculture
  2. Settlement Patterns and Survey Methods
  3. Agricultural Origins and Diffusions
  4. The Second Agricultural Revolution
  5. The Green Revolution
  6. Agricultural Production Regions
  7. Spatial Organization of Agriculture
  8. Von Thünen Model
  9. The Global System of Agriculture
    1. Consequences of Agricultural Practices
    2. Challenges of contemporary Agriculture
    3. Women in Agriculture

5.1: Introduction to Agriculture

main themes

  • Agricultural practices are influenced by the physical environment and climate conditions, such as the Mediterranean climate and tropical climates.
    • Intensive farming practices include market gardening, plantation agriculture, and mixed crop/livestock systems
    • Extensive farming practices include shifting cultivation, nomadic herding, and ranching
Intensive vs. Extensive agriculture
  • Extensive Agriculture:
    • produces a lower yields, therefore is used with large quantities of land in order to be profitable.
  • Intensive Agriculture:
    • the use of large amounts of labor and capital per unit land area.
shifting cultivation

usually in tropical forests, where farmers aim to maintain soil fertility by rotating the fields they cultivate

  • A small area of land is cleared, vegetation is burned, providing a source of nutrients from the ash.
  • Soil remains fertile for the tribe to grow crops (2-3 yrs)
  • When the fertility is exhausted, the tribe moves on, leaving it to fallow, (usually cultivated land that is allowed to lie idle) and then clears another area of forest.
  • The original area is regenerated, as it receives nutrients and seeds from surrounding vegetation.
  • no lasting damage occurs, making this sustainable
  • Uses the most amount of land, however.
intensive subsistence
  • effective and efficient use of a small parcel of land to maximize crop yield (characteristic of areas of high agricultural density;  supports large rural populations)
wet rice dominant
  • Found in S.E. Asia, E. India, S.E. China
  • very *__labor intensive __*production of rice, including transfer to sawah, or paddies
  • most important source of food in Asia
  • practiced by the largest percentage of the world's people
  • grown on flat, or terraced land
  • Double cropping is used in warm winter areas of S. China & Taiwan
non-wet rice dominant
  • Found in NE China, interior of India
  • Climate not conducive to wet rice (more temperate, less rainfall, harsher winters)
  • very *__labor intensive __*production of wheat, barley, millet, soybeans, sorghum
  • still uses land intensively
  • crop rotation (introduces new crop every year to replenish nutrients)
pastoral nomadism

**__Pastoralism:  __**breeding and herding animals for food, clothing, shelter

  • Some obtain grain from sedentary subsistence farmers.
  • More commonly, women and children tend to crops at a fixed location.
  • Some remain in a place and cultivate the land when rainfall is abundant.
  • transhumance:  movement of herds according to seasonal rhythms

today…

  • Found in the *__arid and semi-arid areas __*of N. Africa, Middle East, Central Asia
  • Camel, Goats, Sheep, Cattle
  • Most nomads are being pressured into sedentary life as land is used for agriculture or mining.
plantation farming
  • large scale mono-cropping of profitable products not able to be grown in Europe or U.S.
  • Found in tropical lowlands (periphery)
  • crops: cotton, sugar cane, coffee, rubber, cocoa, bananas, tea, coconuts, palm oil.
mixed crop and livestock

The integration of livestock and crop farming

  • Most land is used for farming (feed for animals)
  • Most money comes from animals (70-75%)
  • Found in U.S. west of Appalachian Mountains, Europe
  • Crop rotation is common
    • #1 Corn, #2 soybeans

Advantages:

  • Livestock supply manure fertilizer
  • Workload is evenly distributed 

     throughout the year

  • Less seasonal variation in income
ranching

Commercial grazing of livestock over extensive area

  • Western U.S. cattle ranching
  • Becomes sedentary- railroads, range wars late 1800s
  • South America pampas (prairies) Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay
  • Ranchers are losing grazing land due to irrigation improvements and industrialized feed lots/farms

Milkshed- the geographic ring around a city from which milk can be supplied without spoiling

  • Milk is highly perishable, so dairy farms must be closer to their markets than other types of farms 
  • Transportation improvements have allowed dairy farms to be located further away than their market
  • 1840s milkshed was about 30 mi, now about 300 mi
  • The farther away the farm from an urban area, the less milk they produce (cheese, butter, soap, etc)
    • Most farms in the East make milk, in Wisconsin most is processed into cheese and butter
mediterranean agriculture
  • Found in Mediterranean region, California, Chile, and parts of South Africa and Australia
    • All areas border seas
    • West coasts of continents (moisture from sea winds)
    • Moderate winter temps
    • Hot, dry summers
    •  Hilly, mountainous land 
  • Horticulture: the growing of fruits, vegetables, flowers, and tree crops 
    • Olives, grapes, fruits, vegetables

5.2: Settlement Patterns and Survey Methods 

main themes

  • Specific agricultural practices shape different rural land-use patterns 
    • Rural settlement patterns are classified as clustered, dispersed, or linear 
    • Rural survey methods include metes and bounds, township and range, and long lot 
Rural Settlement Patterns

  • Specific agricultural practices shape different rural land-use patterns. 

  • Rural settlement patterns are classified as clustered, dispersed, or linear.

  • Throughout European history, rural residents commonly lived in nucleated or clustered settlements, groups of homes located near each other in a hamlet or village. 

  • Clustered settlements fostered a strong sense of community and were convenient for sharing services, such as schools and churches. 

  • However, farmers spent part of each day walking to and from their fields, and watching over crops and animals was difficult.

  • In contrast to Europeans, North American farmers usually created dispersed settlements, a pattern in which farmers lived in homes spread throughout the countryside. 

  • In Canada and the US, the governments promoted westward expansion by giving farmers land (in the US 160 acres) if they agreed to reside on it for several years. 

  • As a result, agricultural villages were extremely rare in this region.

linear settlements
  • Linear settlements are patterns of houses and buildings following the lines of the road transport routes. 
  • Linear settlements are usually constructed for easy access to transportation routes for people and goods. 
english surveying systems
  • In England, fields often had irregular shapes that reflected the location of physical features and traditional patterns of use. 
  • Plot boundaries were described using the metes and bounds system. 
  • Metes were used for short distances and often referred to features of specific points, such as “from the oak tree, 100 yards north, to the corner of the barn.” 
  • Bounds cover larger areas, and were based on larger features, such as streams or roads.
american surveying systems
  • The English colonists in America also used metes and bounds. 
  • However, in 1785, the US switched to a system based on surveying rather than landscape features. 
  • The government organized land into townships and ranges, areas six miles long and six miles wide. 
  • Each square mile, or section, consisted of 640 acres, and it could be divided into smaller lots, such as half sections or quarter sections.
french surveying systems
  • French settlers in North America emphasized the value of access to a river for water and trade. 
  • So that many farmers could have some river frontage, they developed the French long-lot system, in which farms were long thin sections of land that ran perpendicular to a river.
  • The best examples of this system in North America occurs in Quebec and Louisiana.

5.3: Agricultural Origins and Diffusions 

main themes

  • Early hearths of domestication of plants and animals arose in the Fertile Crescent and several other regions of the world, including the Indus River Valley, Southeast Asia, and Central America
  • Patterns of diffusion, such as the Columbian Exchange and the agricultural revolutions, resulted in the global spread of various plants and animals. 
the origins of agriculture
  • Humans likely hunted and gathered 
  • Origins aren’t certain- before recorded history
  • Agriculture: deliberate modification of Earth’s surface through cultivation of plants and rearing of animals to obtain sustenance or economic gain. 
    • Agrarian:  the way of life that is deeply embedded in the demands of agricultural production

hunter-gatherers

  • Humanity’s only “economic” activity for at least 90% of our existence
  • Low population densities
  • Wide variety of food eaten
  • What stage of the DTM??

First Agricultural Revolution (Neolithic) 8,000 BCE

  • Time when humans first domesticated plants and animals and no longer relied entirely on hunting and gathering
  • Vegetative versus seed agriculture?
  • Crop hearths
    • Southwest Asia: barley, wheat, lentil, olives
    • East Asia: rice, millet
    • Sub-Saharan Africa: sorghum, yams, millet, rice
    • Latin America: beans, cotton, potato, maize
  • Animal hearths
    • Southwest Asia: domestic cattle, goats, pigs, sheep, dogs
    • Central Asia: domesticated horses

Results of the First Agricultural Revolution (Neolithic) 8,000BCE

  • Primary Effects:
    • Development of cities
    • Social stratification
    • Job specialization
    • Increased population densities
  • Secondary Effects:
    • Endemic diseases
    • Famine
    • Expansionism

5.4: The Second Agricultural Revolution 

main themes

  • New technology and increased food production in the second agricultural revolution led to better diets, longer life expectancies, and more people available for work in factories 
the second agricultural revolution

(coincides with the Industrial Revolution) 1750 AD

  • New innovations:  Metal plows, reapers, cotton gin, seed drill, organic fertilizer, drainage, improved yoke, horse replaces ox, tractors (steam, and internal combustion engine)

  • Primary Effects:

    • Improved production (yields)
    • Stable food supply
    • Less human labor needed
    • Commercial agriculture develops

  • Secondary Effects:

    • Life expectancy
    • Urbanization
    • Enclosure movement- the process of fencing off, or enclosing, common lands into individual holdings, largely for the benefit of the already wealthy farmers

5.5: The Green Revolution

main themes

  • The Green Revolution was characterized in agriculture by the use of high-yield seeds, increased use of chemicals, and mechanized farming.
    • The Green Revolution had positive and negative consequences for both human populations and the environment. 
the third agricultural revolution/the green revolution

late 20th century

  • mechanization- replacement of human farm labor with machines
  • chemical farming- application of synthetic fertilizers to the soil- herbicides, fungicides, and pesticides to crops to enhance yields (GREEN REV)
  • food manufacturing- involves adding economic values to agricultural products through a range of treatments- processing, canning, refining, packing, packaging, etc- occurring off the farm and before the products reach the market

results of the green revolution

  • core countries export a technological package of fertilizers and high-yielding seeds to periphery in order to increase global agricultural productivity  (late 1960s)
  • prevented famines in Asia (India) and Mexico
  • LDCs are able to sell surplus
  • chemical fertilizers cause pollution
  • farmers struggle to afford GR packages: 
    • take out loans for high yield seeds- bad year ruins them
    • unemployment due to mechanization

5.6: Agricultural Production Regions 

main themes

  • Agricultural production regions are defined by the extent to which they reflect s__ubsistence or commercial practices__ (monocropping or monoculture) 
  • Intensive and extensive farming practices are determined in part by land costs (bid-rent theory) 
subsistence vs. commercial agriculture

Subsistence farming:

  • is the production of food primarily for consumption by the farmer’s family.
    • Practiced primarily in developing countries
    • Higher percentage of farmers in labor force
    • Lack of technology/mechanization
    • Smaller farm size

Commercial farming:

  • is the production of food primarily for sale off the farm
    • Practiced primarily in developed countries.
    • lower percentage of farmers in labor force
    • highly mechanized
    • larger farm size
the significance of placement

Bid-rent theory: refers to how price and demand on real estate changes as the distance toward the Central Business District (CBD)

  • states that the closer land is to the CBD, the more competition there will be for the land, since businesses wish to maximize profit.

5.7 Spatial Organization of Agriculture 

main themes

  • Large-scale commercial agricultural operations are replacing small family farms 
  • Complex commodity chains link production and consumption of agricultural products 
  • Technology has increased economies of scale in the agricultural sector and the carrying capacity of the land 
agricultural industrialization
  • Agricultural industrialization:  process where the farm has moved from being the centerpiece of agricultural production to being one of an integrated multilevel industrial process
    • retailing
    • marketing
    • distribution
    • processing
    • storage
    • production
  • essential knowledge
    • Complex commodity chains link production and consumption of agricultural products.
    • Commodity Chain: activities involved in the creation of a product: design, production of raw materials, manufacturing and assembly, distribution
the Technological Impact on Spatial Organization of Agriculture  
  • Technology has increased economies of scale in the agricultural sector and the carrying capacity of the land.
  • Economies of Scale: cost advantages gained by an increased level of production

5.8: Von Thunen Model

main themes

  • Von Thunen’s model helps to explain rural land use by emphasizing the importance of transportation costs associated with distance from the market; however, regions of speciality farming do not always conform to von Thunen’s concentric rings 
Importance of Access to Markets
  • Distance from the farm to the market influences the farmer’s choice of crop to plant.
    • Dairy farming?
    • Timber?
    • Cattle?
    • Fruits and vegetables? (market gardening)

5.9: The Global System of Agriculture 

main themes

  • Food and other agricultural products are part of a global supply chain 
  • Some countries have become highly dependent on one or more export commodities 
  • The main elements of global food distribution networks are affected by political relationships, infrastructure, and patterns of world trade 
commodity dependence

What’s the issue? 

  • Single export focus 
  • Raw material = less income 
  • Subject to market fluctuation
  • Subject to trade negotiations 
  • Subject to tariffs to protect other markets 
  • Does not promote industrial development 
  • Fair Trade and working conditions 
  • Exports controlled by transnational corporations 

5.10: Consequences of Agricultural Practices 

main themes

  • Environmental effects of agricultural land use include pollution, land cover change, desertification, soil salinization, and conservation efforts. 
  • Agricultural practices-including slash and burn, terraces, irrigation, deforestation, draining wetlands, shifting cultivation, and pastoral nomadism - alter the landscape 
  • Societal effects of agricultural practices include changing diets, role of women in agricultural production, and economic purpose. 
Consequences of Agricultural Practices 

  • Environmental effects 

    • pollution 
    • land cover change 
    • development 
    • desertification
    • fertile land becomes a desert 
    • soil salinization 
    • process by which salt increases in the soil.

  • Societal Effects 

    • Changing diets 
    • Different foods available 
    • better or worse? 
    • Role of women in agriculture 
    • Playing larger role 
    • Economic purpose 
    • More so providing income rather than food for consumption

5.11: Challenges of Contemporary Agriculture 

main themes

  • Agricultural innovations such as biotechnology, genetically modified organisms, and aquaculture have been accompanied by debates over sustainability, soil and water usage, reductions in biodiversity, and extensive fertilizer and pesticide use. 
  • Patterns of food production and consumption are influenced by movements relating to individual food choice, such as urban farming, c__ommunity-supported agriculture__, organic farming, value-added speciality crops, fair trade, local-food movements, and dietary shifts 
  • Challenges of feeding a global population include lack of food access as in cases of food insecurity and food deserts; problems with distribution systems; adverse weather; and land use lost to suburbanization
  • The location of food processing facilities and markets, economies of scale, distribution systems, and government policies all have economic effects on food-production practices. 
Additional Changes in Commercial Agriculture
  • Blue Revolution: introduction of motorized and larger boats, processing technology, and production techniques into peripheral country fisheries
    • Aquaculture: the growing of aquatic creatures in ponds on shore or in pens suspended by water

new ideas in agriculture

  • Urban agriculture:  the establishment or agricultural practices in or near an urban setting; closer to market, no pesticides, less water needed
  • Vertical Farming/Urban Agriculture
  • Non-traditional Agricultural Exports (NTAEs):  new export crops that contrast with traditional exports (dragon fruit, passion fruit, teas, coconut oil)
  • Biotechnology:  any technique that uses living organisms to make or modify products to improve plants and animals or to develop microorganisms for specific uses (fermentation, cell fusion, embryo transfer, etc.)
  • Genetically modified organism (GMO):  any organism that has had its DNA modified in a laboratory rather than through cross-pollination or other forms of evolution
sustainable agriculture

Farming methods preserve long-term productivity of land and minimize pollution

  •  Sensitive land management
  •  Limited use of chemicals
  •  Improved integration of crops and livestock
  • Organic: approach to farming and ranching that avoids the use of herbicides, pesticides, growth hormones, and other similar synthetic inputs
problems in agriculture
  • Famine:  acute starvation associated with a sharp increase in mortality
  • Undernutrition
  • Food deserts
    • exist when nutritious food is difficult to obtain due to availability, affordability, distance, or limited places to shop in a given area
  • Government subsidies
    • Meant to address nation-level ag crises
    • Maintain profitability by paying farmers not to grow certain crops that are expected to be in excess 
    • Buying up surplus and guaranteeing a fixed price for them
    • Problems created:
    • Instead of discouraging production of crops expected to be in excess, the fixed price for surplus encourages the continuation of overproduction
    • Govt. must redistribute the surplus- international govts.- this undermines price structure in that country, reduces economic incentives for their famers 
  • “circle of poison” brought to public attention
    • Synthetic chemical pesticides- DDT
  • Loss of topsoil
    • A relatively fixed resource
    • Estimated 50,000 million metric tons of topsoil are lost each year to erosion
  • desertification- “semi-arid land degradation”

5.12: Women in Agriculture 

main themes

  • The role of women in food production, distribution, and consumption varies in many places depending on the type of production involved
food production

  • Women have played a major role in agriculture since the beginning of farming. 

  • Today women make up about 40% of the world’s agricultural labor. In regions where the majority practice subsistence farming, the figure is 70% of the labor force. 

    • Men migrate to urban areas in search of employment 
    • Women stay at home and work their farms 
    • Mechanization = less women in field work 
    • Large-scale agriculture = management, sales, distribution, research 

  • People move from rural to urban areas, they grew less of the food they consumed and purchased more 

  • Women spend less time preparing food than women in previous generations, and are purchasing ready-made meals 

    • Demand for these foods has grown 

  • Men have become more involved in food preparation in areas where there is a high amount of gender equality 

  • People are also eating in restaurants more than ever